Ecological risks posed by ammonia nitrogen (AN) and un-ionized ammonia (NH3) in seven major river systems of China.

Previous studies showed that continuous exposure to ammonia nitrogen (AN) contributed to regional losses of benthic invertebrate diversity in China. Yet, the overall ecological risk of AN to aquatic organisms in major riverine systems of China has not been appropriately studied. Our research then investigated temporal (seasonally/yearly) and spatial distributions of AN and un-ionized ammonia (NH3) in major Chinese river basins using historic data generated between 2007 and 2014, and developed risk assessment criteria. Our results showed that the highest average AN concentrations occurred during winter (0.82-2.76 mg/L) and the lowest during summer (0.36-0.78 mg/L). NH3 exhibited the opposite trend with the highest average concentrations mostly observed during spring (15.13-92.84 μg/L) and the lowest concentrations mainly during winter (10.53-45.43 μg/L). Both AN and NH3 concentrations steadily increased and reached maximum levels in 2008 (AN: 1.22 mg/L and NH3: 50.65 μg/L), and then decreased. Temporal trends showed that the Yellow, Hai, and Huai river basins had the highest AN and NH3 concentrations. Subsequently, conventional (hazard quotients) and probabilistic (joint probability curves) methods were applied to assess the hazards and risks posed by AN and NH3. The results showed that the probability of exceeding the acute toxicity threshold for 5% of species (exposed to AN or NH3) was less than 13.3% and gradually decreased over time. To protect aquatic organisms, an acute criterion of 51.4 μg NH3/L and a chronic criterion of 1.14 mg AN/L at pH = 7.5, 20 °C were developed and are recommended for future risk assessment studies.