Black yeasts in the omics era: Achievements and challenges.

Black yeasts (BY) comprise a group of polyextremotolerant fungi, mainly belonging to the order Chaetothyriales, which are capable of colonizing a wide range of extreme environments. The tolerance to hostile habitats can be explained by their intrinsic ability to survive under acidic, alkaline, and toxic conditions, high temperature, low nutrient availability, and osmotic and mechanical stress. Occasionally, some species can cause human chromoblastomycosis, a chronic subcutaneous infection, as well as disseminated or cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Three years after the release of the first black yeast genome, the number of projects for sequencing these organisms has significantly increased. Over 37 genomes of important opportunistic and saprobic black yeasts and relatives are now available in different databases. The whole-genome sequencing, as well as the analysis of differentially expressed mRNAs and the determination of protein expression profiles generated an unprecedented amount of data, requiring the development of a curated repository to provide easy accesses to this information. In the present article, we review various aspects of the impact of genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics on black yeast studies. We discuss recent key findings achieved by the use of these technologies and further directions for medical mycology in this area. An important vehicle is the Working Groups on Black Yeasts and Chromoblastomycosis, under the umbrella of ISHAM, which unite the clinicians and a highly diverse population of fundamental scientists to exchange data for joint publications.