Genetic transformation of cell-walled plant and algae cells: delivering DNA through the cell wall.

Transformation techniques are a fundamental tool for functional genomics studies. These techniques are routinely used in many prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, but in eukaryotes that are surrounded by a cell wall, these protocols have proven difficult to successfully deliver heterologous or homologous DNA within their cytoplasm and nucleus. Such cell-walled organisms represent a challenge that requires the development of genetic transformation techniques that are able to overcome their natural barrier, to achieve targeted gene expression. Here, we review the techniques that have been proven successful and applied to these cell-walled eukaryotic organisms. We focus, especially, on plant cells, microalgae, and the latest approaches to mediate DNA uptake by the photosynthetic dinoflagellate Symbiodinium.