Howland current source for high impedance load applications.

For Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) applications, the Enhanced Howland Current Source (EHCS) is a popular choice as an excitation circuit due to its simplicity, reliability, and safety. However, its output impedance degradation at high frequency leads to errors that are unacceptable for high load impedance applications, such as the ones which use dry or microelectrodes. Based on a proposed mathematical model, this work designed an EHCS circuit which includes an output current buffer and frequency compensation. PSpice simulations were performed as proof of concept, and then the measured data were collected for comparison. For the proposed circuit, called here Load-in-the-Loop Compensated Enhanced Howland Source (LLC-EHCS), the results showed that the output current errors are lower than 1% up to 3.7 MHz over the load range of 560-2200 Ω and 1.2 MHz with 5.6 kΩ. On the other hand, for the case of the standard EHCS circuit, these frequencies are 170 and 80 kHz, respectively. Also, the output linear swing was found to be 3 times higher than the EHCS. It can be concluded that the proposed LLC-EHCS may be widely used as an excitation circuit for high load and wide bandwidth EIS applications.