Hypothalamic dysfunction in heart failure: pathogenetic mechanisms and therapeutic implications.

Neurohumoral activation is an important feature of heart failure. Recent advances in molecular biology and imaging techniques permitted a better understanding of the central role that hypothalamus plays in the modulation of dysfunctional mechanisms, as well as the occurrence of comorbidities, such as depression, in heart failure patients. This review summarizes the commonly reported neural reflexes and molecular signaling pathways at the level of the hypothalamus along with the dysfunctional mechanisms within the paraventricular nucleus and other areas of the hypothalamus in heart failure and describes some relevant therapeutic implications.