Intraoperative 3D Computed Tomography: Spine Surgery.

Spinal instrumentation often involves placing implants without direct visualization of their trajectory or proximity to adjacent neurovascular structures. Two-dimensional fluoroscopy is commonly used to navigate implant placement, but with the advent of computed tomography, followed by the invention of a mobile scanner with an open gantry, three-dimensional (3D) navigation is now widely used. This article critically appraises the available literature to assess the influence of 3D navigation on radiation exposure, accuracy of instrumentation, operative time, and patient outcomes. Also explored is the latest technological advance in 3D neuronavigation: the manufacturing of, via 3D printers, patient-specific templates that direct implant placement.