Philip A May1, Barbara Tabachnick2, Julie M Hasken3, Anna-Susan Marais4, Marlene M de Vries4, Ronel Barnard4, Belinda Joubert4, Marise Cloete4, Isobel Botha4, Wendy O Kalberg5, David Buckley5, Zachary R Burroughs6, Heidre Bezuidenhout5, Luther K Robinson7, Melanie A Manning8, Colleen M Adnams9, Soraya Seedat4, Charles D H Parry10, H Eugene Hoyme11. 1. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Nutrition Research Institute, United States; Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South Africa; The University of New Mexico, Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse and Addictions, United States. Electronic address: philip_may@unc.edu. 2. California State University, Northridge, United States. 3. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Nutrition Research Institute, United States. 4. Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South Africa. 5. The University of New Mexico, Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse and Addictions, United States. 6. Catawba College, United States. 7. State University of New York, Buffalo, Department of Pediatrics, United States. 8. Stanford University School of Medicine, Departments of Pathology and Pediatrics, United States. 9. University of Cape Town, Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, South Africa. 10. Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, South Africa; Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, South Africa. 11. Sanford Research, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, United States; University of Arizona, Department of Pediatrics, United States.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To examine outcomes among boys and girls that are associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. METHODS: Boys and girls with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) and randomly-selected controls were compared on a variety of physical and neurobehavioral traits. RESULTS: Sex ratios indicated that heavy maternal binge drinking may have significantly diminished viability to birth and survival of boys postpartum more than girls by age seven. Case control comparisons of a variety of physical and neurobehavioral traits at age seven indicate that both sexes were affected similarly for a majority of variables. However, alcohol-exposed girls had significantly more dysmorphology overall than boys and performed significantly worse on non-verbal IQ tests than males. A three-step sequential regression analysis, controlling for multiple covariates, further indicated that dysmorphology among girls was significantly more associated with five maternal drinking variables and three distal maternal risk factors. However, the overall model, which included five associated neurobehavioral measures at step three, was not significant (p=0.09, two-tailed test). A separate sequential logistic regression analysis of predictors of a FASD diagnosis, however, indicated significantly more negative outcomes overall for girls than boys (Nagelkerke R2=0.42 for boys and 0.54 for girls, z=-2.9, p=0.004). CONCLUSION: Boys and girls had mostly similar outcomes when prenatal alcohol exposure was linked to poor physical and neurocognitive development. Nevertheless, sex ratios implicate lower viability and survival of males by first grade, and girls have more dysmorphology and neurocognitive impairment than boys resulting in a higher probability of a FASD diagnosis.
OBJECTIVE: To examine outcomes among boys and girls that are associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. METHODS:Boys and girls with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) and randomly-selected controls were compared on a variety of physical and neurobehavioral traits. RESULTS: Sex ratios indicated that heavy maternal binge drinking may have significantly diminished viability to birth and survival of boys postpartum more than girls by age seven. Case control comparisons of a variety of physical and neurobehavioral traits at age seven indicate that both sexes were affected similarly for a majority of variables. However, alcohol-exposed girls had significantly more dysmorphology overall than boys and performed significantly worse on non-verbal IQ tests than males. A three-step sequential regression analysis, controlling for multiple covariates, further indicated that dysmorphology among girls was significantly more associated with five maternal drinking variables and three distal maternal risk factors. However, the overall model, which included five associated neurobehavioral measures at step three, was not significant (p=0.09, two-tailed test). A separate sequential logistic regression analysis of predictors of a FASD diagnosis, however, indicated significantly more negative outcomes overall for girls than boys (Nagelkerke R2=0.42 for boys and 0.54 for girls, z=-2.9, p=0.004). CONCLUSION:Boys and girls had mostly similar outcomes when prenatal alcohol exposure was linked to poor physical and neurocognitive development. Nevertheless, sex ratios implicate lower viability and survival of males by first grade, and girls have more dysmorphology and neurocognitive impairment than boys resulting in a higher probability of a FASD diagnosis.
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