Visceral nociception: peripheral and central aspects of visceral nociceptive systems.

Discomfort and pain are the sensations most commonly evoked from viscera. Most nociceptive signals that originate from visceral organs reach the central nervous system (c.n.s.) via afferent fibres in sympathetic nerves, whereas parasympathetic nerves contain mainly those visceral afferent fibres concerned with the non-sensory aspects of visceral afferent function. Noxious stimulation of viscera activates a variety of specific and non-specific receptors, the vast majority of which are connected to unmyelinated afferent fibres. Studies on the mechanisms of visceral sensation can thus provide information on the more general functions of unmyelinated afferent fibres. Specific visceral nociceptors have been found in the heart, lungs, testes and biliary system, whereas noxious stimulation of the gastro-intestinal tract appears to be detected mainly by non-specific visceral receptors that use an intensity-encoding mechanism. Visceral nociceptive messages are conveyed to the spinal cord by relatively few visceral afferent fibres which activate many central neurons by extensive functional divergence through polysynaptic pathways. Impulses in visceral afferent fibres excite spinal cord neurons also driven by somatic inputs from the corresponding dermatome (viscero-somatic neurons). Noxious intensities of visceral stimulation are needed to activate viscero-somatic neurons, most of which can also be excited by noxious stimulation of their somatic receptive fields. The visceral input to some viscero-somatic neurons in the spinal cord can be mediated via long supraspinal loops. Pathways of projection of viscero-somatic neurons include the spino-reticular and spino-thalamic tracts. All these findings give experimental support to the 'convergence-projection' theory of referred visceral pain. Visceral pain is the consequence of the diffuse activation of somato-sensory nociceptive systems in a manner that prevents accurate spatial discrimination or localization of the stimuli. Noxious stimulation of visceral receptors triggers general reactions of alertness and arousal and evokes unpleasant and poorly localized sensory experiences. This type of response may be a feature of sensory systems dominated by unmyelinated afferent inputs.