Review article: a practical approach to the clinical management of NSAID enteropathy.

Co-prescription of acid suppressive therapy, together with advances in small bowel imaging techniques, have shifted the burden of NSAID-related toxicity from gastro-duodenal to more distal small bowel injury. Due to predominantly subclinical disease, NSAID enteropathy remains under-recognised, with an incidence of 53-80% amongst healthy short-term users, and a prevalence of 50-71% following long-term (>3 months) use. Despite their distinct pathogenesis, those at risk of NSAID-related gastro-duodenal and small bowel complications share several risk factors. Clinical complications of NSAID enteropathy such as protein-losing enteropathy, small bowel strictures and diaphragm disease, confer significant morbidity, and are often irreversible. Small bowel prophylaxis has proven of modest efficacy after short-term, high-dose NSAID use in asymptomatic patients. While selective COX-2 inhibitors are associated with fewer gastro-duodenal complications relative to non-selective NSAIDs, their comparative benefit in protecting against small bowel enteropathy remains unclear. Prophylaxis should be considered in those at high risk of small bowel complications, as treatment options for established disease remain limited; however, the optimal agent remains unclear. We propose a clinical algorithm that may help prevent, monitor, investigate, and manage the sequelae of NSAID-induced small bowel toxicity.