Up and Away: Five Decades of Urologic Investigation in Microgravity.

A renewed global interest in manned space exploration has emerged, propelled by the challenge of reaching a new frontier: travel to the Red Planet, Mars. As the physiological changes induced by microgravity bear direct relevance to the safety and viability of these goals, we provide a historical narrative of the urologic investigations in space. We review the significant contributions to the understanding of the urologic consequences associated with exposure to microgravity, considerations for prolonged missions, and forward-looking efforts to manage emergent conditions remotely. Historical insights gleaned are poised to inform interplanetary travel, where urologic pathology will remain an important practical consideration.