Developmental temperatures and phenotypic plasticity in reptiles: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Early environments can profoundly influence an organism in ways that persist over its life. In reptiles, early thermal environments (nest temperatures) can impact offspring phenotype and survival in important ways, yet we still lack an understanding of whether general trends exist and the magnitude of impact. Understanding these patterns is important in predicting how climate change will affect reptile populations and the role of phenotypic plasticity in buffering populations. We compiled data from 175 reptile studies to examine, and quantify, the effect of incubation temperature on phenotype and survival. Using meta-analytic approaches (standardized mean difference between incubation treatments, Hedges' g), we show that across all trait types examined there is, on average, a moderate to large magnitude of effect of incubation temperatures (absolute effect: |g| = 0.75). Unsurprisingly, this influence was extremely large for incubation duration, as predicted, with warmer temperatures decreasing incubation time overall (g = -8.42). Other trait types, including behaviour, physiology, morphology, performance, and survival experienced reduced, but still mostly moderate to large effects, with particularly strong effects on survival. Moreover, the impact of incubation temperature persisted at least one-year post-hatching, suggesting that these effects have the potential to impact fitness in the long term. The magnitude of effect increased as the change in temperature increased (e.g. 6°C versus 2°C) in almost all cases, and tended to decrease when temperatures of the treatments fluctuated around a mean temperature compared to when they were constant. The effect also depended on the mid-temperature of the comparison, but not in consistent ways, with some traits experiencing the greatest effects at extreme temperatures, while others did not. The highly heterogeneous nature of the effects we observe, along with a large amount of unexplained variability, indicates that the shape of reaction norms between phenotype and temperature, along with ecological and/or experimental factors, are important when considering general patterns. Our analyses provide new insights into the effects of incubation environments on reptile phenotype and survival and allow general, albeit coarse, predictions for taxa experiencing warming nest temperatures under climatic change.