Chemical cues from multiple predator-prey interactions induce changes in behavior and growth of anuran larvae.

Chemical signals are used as information by prey to assess predation risk in their environment. To evaluate the effects of multiple predators on prey growth, mediated by a change in prey activity, I exposed small and large bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) larvae (tadpoles) to chemical cues from different combinations of bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) and larval dragonfly (Anax junius) predators. Water was regularly transferred from predation trials (outdoor experiment) to aquaria (indoor experiment) in which activity and growth of tadpoles was measured. The highest predation mortality of small bullfrog larvae in the outdoor experiment was due to Anax, and it was slightly lower in the presence of both predators, probably resulting from interactions between predators. There was almost no mortality of prey with bluegill. The activity and growth of small bullfrog larvae was highest in the absence of predators and lowest in the presence of Anax. In the presence of bluegill only, or with both predators, the activity and growth of small bullfrog tadpoles was intermediate. Predators did not affect large tadpole activity and growth. Regressing mortality of small bullfrog tadpoles against activity and growth of bullfrog tadpoles revealed a significant effect for small bullfrog larvae but a non-significant effect for large bullfrog larvae. This shows that the response of bullfrog tadpoles to predators is related to their own body size. The experiment demonstrates that chemical cues are released both as predator odor and as alarm substances and both have the potential to strongly alter the activity and growth of prey. Different mechanisms by which chemical cues may be transmitted to species interactions in the food web are discussed.