Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists for the Correction of Hyponatremia in Chronic Heart Failure: An Underutilized Therapeutic Option in Current Clinical Practice?

In the congestive heart failure (CHF) setting, chronic hyponatremia is very common. The present review aims at addressing topics relevant to the pathophysiology of hyponatremia in the course of CHF as well as its optimal treatment, including the main advantages and the limitations resulting from the use of the available dietary and pharmacological measures approved for the treatment of this electrolytic trouble. A narrative review is carried out in order to represent the main modalities of therapy for chronic hyponatremia that frequently complicates CHF. The limits of usual therapies implemented for CHF-related chronic hyponatremia are outlined, while an original analysis of the main advancements achieved with the use of vasopressin receptor antagonists (VRAs) is also executed. The European regulatory restrictions that currently limit the use of VRAs in the management of CHF are substantially caused by financial concerns, i.e., the high costs of VRA therapy. A thoughtful reworking of current restrictions would be warranted in order to enable VRAs to be usefully associated to loop diuretics for decongestive treatment of CHF patients with hyponatremia.

1. Hyponatremia: Definition and Main Clinical Features

The condition, known as hyponatremia, is usually defined by serum Na+ levels of <135 mEq/L.

An important categorization of hyponatremia is based on the state of the extracellular fluid volume (ECFV). ECFV is elevated in hypervolemic hyponatremia, which is typically caused by excessive retention of water, usually due to increased secretion of arginine-vasopressin (AVP), which is also known as antidiuretic hormone, as in the setting of several edematous syndromes such as chronic heart failure and liver cirrhosis.

Euvolemic hyponatremia, where AVP secretion is increased but ECFV is essentially normal, is most often associated with the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH). Finally, hypovolemic hyponatremia reflects a lower ECFV and is associated with depletional disorders (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, and loss of blood) or with drugs that substantially increase the urinary clearance of electrolytes (e.g., diuretics).

Hyponatremia treatment varies depending on the speed of onset and on the cause, severity, and status of the ECFV. Conventional treatments for hyponatremia include fluid restriction, administration of isotonic saline solution, the combined administration of hypertonic saline solution plus furosemide, demeclocycline, lithium, and urea, even though these options are limited by concerns regarding the efficacy, adverse events, and, particularly in the case of fluid restriction, the patient’s adherence to therapy. In addition, low levels of serum sodium should not be corrected too quickly, because this may lead to osmotic demyelination syndrome, which is associated with significant neurological sequelae. Recent introduction of vasopressin receptor antagonists (VRAs) into the clinical armamentarium has provided additional therapeutic options for treatment of patients with hyponatremia.

In this brief review, some topics relevant to the pathophysiology of hyponatremia in the course of CHF, as well as to its real clinical significance, are examined. Moreover, some issues concerning optimal treatment of hyponatremia arising during CHF are also addressed. Finally, advantages and limitations resulting from the use of VRAs, namely, the drugs that have recently emerged as the best available resource against hyponatremia, are outlined.

2. Hyponatremia and Chronic Heart Failure

In chronic heart failure (CHF), hyponatremia typically develops in the presence of expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment (so-called hypervolemic hyponatremia); thus, it is typically marked by an increase in both total body Na+ and total body water (TBW) (Table 1).

Table 1

Main causes of hyponatremia.

Hyponatremia with Hypovolemia (Decrease in Total Body Water (TBW) and Total Body Na+ with Relatively More Profound Fall of the Latter)
Extrarenal losses	- gastrointestinal:	- vomiting
		- diarrhea
	- losses from the third compartment	- pancreatitis
		- peritonitis
		- bowel obstruction
		- rhabdomyolysis - extended burns
Renal losses	- diuretics
	- osmotic diuresis (glucose, urea, mannitol)
	- mineralcorticoid deficiency
	- nephropathy with electrolyte loss
Euvolemic hyponatremia (increase in TBW; nearly normal total body Na+)
- diuretics, especially thiazides
- hypothyroidism
- glucocorticoid deficiency
- conditions with increased release of ADH (postsurgical narcotics, pain, emotional distress)
- syndrome of inappropriate secretion of ADH (SIADH)- primary polydipsia
Hypervolemic hyponatremia, i.e., with expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment (increased total body Na+; relatively greater increase in TBW)
- congestive heart failure
- cirrhosis of the liver
- nephrotic syndrome
Hyponatremia with true hypervolemia (increased total body Na+; increased plasma effective circulating volume)
some hematochemical and clinical patterns of acute or chronic renal failure

TBW: total body water; ADH: antidiuretic hormone; SIADH: syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone.

In its pathogenesis, a key role seems to be played by a mechanism of hypothalamic nonosmotic stimulation [1]. Actually, neuroendocrine cells of the supraortic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, specialized in the AVP synthesis, are known to produce this water-retentive hormone, not only in response to increases in plasma osmolality such as in the case of dehydration and/or hypernatremia, but also as a consequence of hemodynamic troubles—such as hypovolemic shock and hemorrhages, extensive burns, as well as any condition characterized by a chronic sustained fall in effective arterial circulating volume (so-called AVP non-osmotic release) such as CHF, cirrhosis of the liver, and nephrotic syndrome.

In congestive CHF, the non-osmotic stimulation of AVP neuroendocrine secretion along with increased efferent sympathetic nervous traffic and stimulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) frequently ensues as a consequence of decreased activity (hypoperfusion-related) of baroreceptors in the carotid arteries, aortic arch, left ventricle, and afferent arterioles of the kidneys. Hyponatremia, when it is present, results from a hemodilution state consequent to the inhibition of free water excretion in the renal collecting ducts, triggered by increased serum AVP levels and, to a lesser extent, by the direct impairment of renal water excretion by angiotensin. In our opinion, the term “hypervolemic hyponatremia” applied to congestive CHF really is a warped or deceptive interpretation, since in this condition an increased blood volume is contained only in the venous system, thereby producing systemic venous hypertension causing chronic interstitial extravasation leading to peripheral edema, while the effective arterial circulating volume is significantly reduced due to low cardiac output and a slowing down in circulation time [2,3].

In the pathogenesis of hyponatremia, a controversial role is played by diuretic and vasodilator treatments since these drugs can improve cardiac performance and relieve the symptoms of cardiac overload but do not correct per se a preexisting condition of arterial underfilling [4]. Indeed, both diuretics and vasodilators have the potential for inducing hypotension and relative arterial underfilling, thus eliciting further AVP release. Particularly, hyponatremia is likely to be mostly favored or provoked by erroneous and/or overzealous diuretic therapy [5,6]. Therefore, further impairment in effective arterial circulating volume has frequently been blamed on overly drastic or inappropriate diuretic therapy, resulting in the worsening of renal perfusion and fall in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) [7]. Both decreased GFR and stimulation of the thirst mechanism by angiotensin II may favor the development of hyponatremia. However, the pathogenesis of hyponatremia in edematous patients is much-debated and has not been completely elucidated yet. Particularly, some authors argue in favor of a causative role of particular biohumoral patterns (poorly controlled RAAS overactivation [8,9,10], excess of BNP release [11,12], relative adrenal insufficiency [13,14]), and controversial therapeutic approaches (intensive intravenous diuretic therapy [4,6], and thiazides [15,16]), regarding both the pathogenesis and persistence over time of this electrolyte trouble.

3. Hyponatremia: Asymptomatic Clinical Course or Presence of Clinical Symptoms and Signs

The neurological symptoms associated with hyponatremia are similar to those present in other metabolic encephalopathies. Generally, the patient begins to suffer discomfort and nausea when the plasma Na+ concentration quickly drops below 125 mEq/L. Between 115 and 120 mEq/L, headache, lethargy, and dullness appear, even though many patients with chronic hyponatremia exhibit only mild symptoms. The most severe manifestations such as seizures and coma are not frequent until the serum sodium exceeds 110–115 mEqL/L. Focal neurological signs are uncommon, but they may occur in patients with previous brain damage, such as a prior cerebral infarction.

In the presence of volume depletion, patients may also develop typical symptoms of hypovolemia (i.e., weakness, fatigue, muscle cramps, and dizziness). In addition, signs of expansion of the extracellular volume such as edema are not found in patients with water retention due to SIADH or primary polydipsia because more than two thirds of the retained water is accumulated in the cells, and the persistent hypervolemia is prevented by the increase in renal excretion of Na+ and water [17].

There is an additional mechanism that can cause neurological symptoms in patients with hyponatremia: too rapid correction of serum Na+ concentration. Although the danger related to severe acute hyponatremia is clear, several clinical and experimental studies suggest that even a rapid correction of hyponatremia can have the same dangerous potential and lead to demyelinating lesions of the central nervous system, within a few days, in particular involving the pons, a disorder called central pontine myelinolysis, or osmotic demyelination syndrome [18]. These neurological disorders are characterized by paraparesis or tetraparesis, dysarthria, dysphagia, and coma (seizures can also occur but are less frequent).

4. “Conventional” Therapy of Hyponatremia

Treatment of mild asymptomatic hyponatremia (i.e., with plasma Na ≥ 125 mEq/L) aims at identifying and eliminating the underlying cause. Thus, in patients with hyponatremia induced by thiazides, diuretic discontinuation, and the correction of deficit of Na+ may be sufficient. Similarly, if mild hyponatremia is due to an inappropriate or excessive administration of parenteral fluids in a patient suffering from impaired renal excretion of water, the mere suspension of the therapy with hypotonic fluids may be sufficient.

The coexistence of hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and hypotension should suggest the presence of adrenal insufficiency and may require the administration of intravenous (i.v.) glucocorticoids (100 to 200 mg of hydrocortisone in 1 L of 5% dextrose plus normal saline administered over the course of 4 h to treat acute adrenal insufficiency). When adrenal function is normal and instead hyponatremia is associated with depletion of ECF volume and hypotension, the administration of saline solution usually corrects both hyponatremia and hypotension.

In patients with hypervolemic hyponatremia, detectable in CHF, liver cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome, there is typically mild hyponatremia (serum Na+ ≥ 125 mEq/L), and the symptoms are absent or rather veiled. However, dietary water restriction (not more than 500–1000 mL/24 h) together with the treatment of the underlying cause does not restore normal serum Na+ concentrations in the majority of cases. Moreover, the restriction of water intake is poorly tolerated by the patient for the bothersome sense of persistent thirst that it can induce.

For treatment of hyponatremia in these patients, a 3% hypertonic saline solution (HSS), containing sodium 513 mEq/L, can be associated with slow i.v. infusion of furosemide (e.g., 15 mg of i.v. furosemide/hour[h]). Because of the possibility of precipitating additional neurological sequelae (in particular central pontine myelinolysis), HSS should be used with extreme caution during hyponatremia control. Experts agree that over-correction of hyponatremia is dangerous; hypernatremia and even normonatriemia should be avoided.

Therefore, several experts advise against raising serum Na+ to more than 1 mEq/L/h; similarly, they suggest that the absolute increase has to be maintained at no higher than 8 mEq/L/24 h. The following algorithm is a reasonable compromise: 250 mL of 3% HSS should be administered as a slow i.v. infusion coupled with an i.v. drip of furosemide (80 mg at a rate of no more than 15 mg/h); thereafter, serum Na+ should be determined after no more than 10 h. If the values remain excessively low, the infusion may be repeated, keeping the increase in serum Na+ within the limit of 8 mEq/L/24 h.

Furthermore, in hyponatremic CHF patients , the abovementioned combination therapy with i.v. HSS plus a loop diuretic such as furosemide should be complemented by the administration of KCl to replenish the K+ losses induced by the diuretic [19,20]. In addition, in hypervolemic hyponatremia that is unresponsive to diuretics, intermittent or continuous hemodiafiltration may be necessary in order to reduce the volume of ECF while hyponatremia is corrected with i.v. HSS.

For the treatment of hyponatremia during CHF, especially when judged unresponsive to the combination therapy of HSS plus furosemide, another major option is administration of a VRA.

5. The Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists (VRAs): Promoting Free Water Clearance by Kidneys in Patients with CHF

The vasopressin receptor antagonists (VRAs) are a class of drugs known to be efficacious and safe for hyponatremia treatment. In recent years, they, in particular tolvaptan, have assumed major importance compared with conventional therapeutic approaches (water restriction or 3% hypertonic saline solution) for the treatment of hyponatremia [21,22,23,24,25,26,27] (see also Table 2). In Table 3, Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6, some characteristics of VRAs are outlined. In particular, Table 3 highlights the location and function of three types of AVP receptors, Table 4 describes the classification of the most well-known agents depending on their respective affinity for AVP receptors, Table 5 lists the main side effects reported with the use of tolvaptan, i.e., the best known VRA, while Table 6 provides information on its recommended dosage.

Table 2

Main features of therapies used for hyponatremia.

Treatment	Benefits	Disadvantages
Dietary water restriction	financial	- poor patient compliance
		- slow onset of action
Hypertonic saline solution	it allows rapid correction of depressed serum Na+ levels in patients with acute severe hyponatremia	- difficult administration
		- too rapid correction of serum Na+ levels implies a high risk of central pontinemyelinolysis
Tolvaptan	- it aims at the mechanism underlying hyponatremia, i.e., the inappropriate and/or exaggerated secretion of AVP	side-effects include thirst, dry mouth and frequent urination
	- evaluated in randomized controlled trials
	- given orally once daily

AVP, arginine-vasopressin.

Table 3

Vasopressin receptor location and functions.

Subtype (Older Name)	Newer Name	Signaling Pathways	Location	Function
V1A	V1	G-protein coupled, phosphatidylinositol/calcium	vascular smooth muscle	vasoconstriction, myocardialhypertrophy, platelet aggregation, glycogenolysis, uterine contraction
			platelets
			hepatocites
			myometrium
V1B	V3	G-protein coupled, phosphatidylinositol/calcium	anterior pituitary gland	releases ACTH, prolactin, endorphins
V2	V2	Adenylyl cyclase/c-AMP	basolateral membrane of renal collecting ducts	free water reabsorption from collecting ducts

ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Table 4

Classification of vasopressin receptor antagonists (VRAs).

Type	Name
Selective( acting on V2 receptors)	Tolvaptan
	Lixivaptan
	Satavaptan
	Mozavaptan
Non-selective ( acting on V1A and V2 receptors)	Conivaptan

Table 5

Side-effects of tolvaptan.

Classification by Systems and Organs	Frequency
Metabolism and nutrition disorders	Common: polydipsia, dehydration, hyperkalemia, hyperglycemia, decreased appetite
Disorders of the nervous system	Uncommon: dysgeusia
Vascular disorders	Common: orthostatic hypotension
Gastrointestinal disorders	Very common: nausea; Common: constipation, dry mouth
Disorders of skin and subcutaneous tissue	Common: bruises, itch
Renal and urinary disorders	Common: frequent urination, polyuria
Systemic disorders and administration site-related conditions	Very common: thirst; Common: fatigue, low-grade fever
Diagnostic investigations	Common: increased serum creatinine
Other side effects	Common: hypernatremia, hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia, syncope, dizziness; Uncommon: pruritic rash

Table 6

Tolvaptan: recommendations for correct use.

- To be given orally (tablets of 15 or 30 mg) once a day, preferably in the morning, with or without food (peak plasma concentration at 2 h after intake, half-life approximately 8 h).

- The dose may be gradually increased (at intervals > 24 h up to a maximum of 60 mg per day) to achieve the desired correction of serum sodium.

- In the USA and Japan but not in Europe tolvaptan is indicated for hospitalized adults with clinically significant euvolemic or hypervolemic hyponatremia, i.e., serum sodium < 125 mEq/L or less marked hyponatremia (125–134 mEq/L) that is symptomatic and has resisted correction with fluid restriction, including patients with syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) or heart failure (HF).

- In Europe, tolvaptan has been approved only for the treatment of adult patients with hyponatremia secondary to SIADH.

- In Japan the administration of tolvaptan is currently widely used for reducing signs and symptoms of congestion, in conjunction with furosemide, even in patients with normonatremic HF [23,26], or cardiorenal syndrome [27] with or without hyponatremia. Moreover, in Japan, an initial daily dosage of 7.5 mg or less has been recently recommended by some expert clinicians (Hirai et al.) [26] to prevent hypernatremia in short- and long-term tolvaptan treatment for HF , especially in elderly patients, who are at higher risk for hypernatremia.

- In the USA and Europe, but not in Japan, it is recommended not to exceed 30 days of continuous administration of tolvaptan in order to minimize the risk of liver injury described as a possible side effect related to prolonged use of this drug.

- Use of tolvaptan should be avoided in patients with underlying severe liver disease, e.g., liver cirrhosis.

- During dose titration, owing to the need for close monitoring of serum sodium and volume status, tolvaptan should be administered in an ordinary hospitalization regimen.

- Tolvaptan treatment may also be continued at home under medical supervision until hyponatremia is satisfactorily corrected.

Among the VRAs, only oral tolvaptan is marketed in Europe, with the indication for euvolemic hyponatremia caused by a syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH). On the contrary, in the USA and Japan, i.v. conivaptan (V1A/V2 receptors antagonist) and oral tolvaptan are available on the market for the treatment of both euvolemic and hypervolemic hyponatremia [28,29]. Aside from being effective drugs, VRAs have increased physician awareness of hyponatremia. Contrary to the water dietary restriction or the combined i.v. administration of HSS plus furosemide, these drugs allow one to establish long-term therapies that, once begun in hospital for safety reasons, may be continued at the patient's home, always under close monitoring.

Heart failure is a plausible indication for therapy with VRAs because, even in this condition, AVP plays an important role. In heart failure, the stimulation of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, i.e., the neuronal sites of AVP synthesis and secretion, is realized by a nonosmotic mechanism [30]. Indeed, CHF patients, especially those with widespread edema and diuretic resistance, are frequently affected by paradoxical arterial underfilling despite a larger blood volume accumulating in their venous system and a larger total fluid volume, owing to increased extracellular fluid volume with water entrapment in the edematous interstitial compartment. This decrease in effective arterial circulating volume may be further exacerbated by diuretics and vasodilators, when not supplemented by measures to maintain an adequate refilling rate [31]. Therefore, besides the sympathetic and RAAS activation, nonosmotic massive AVP release may arise in edematous CHF patients as a result of intravascular depletion (although coupled with expansion of interstitial fluid compartment) and subsequent over-activation of hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells [30]. AVP then reduces renal clearance of free water, causing its massive reabsorption from the tubular lumen at the level of the renal collecting ducts.

Numerous studies confirm the association of hyponatremia with increased morbidity and mortality in patients hospitalized with acute decompensated heart failure or in outpatients with CHF [32,33,34]. Traditional therapy options for the treatment of hyponatremia in heart failure, such as dietary water restriction or the administration of HSS (3% NaCl) associated with loop diuretics, have been shown to have limited efficacy [35].

The effects of tolvaptan were evaluated extensively in this patient population. The largest study is the Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonism in Heart Failure Outcome Study with Tolvaptan (EVEREST) [21], which includes two short-term clinical trials that enrolled a total of 4133 patients hospitalized for symptomatic systolic heart failure. In this study, administration of tolvaptan in addition to standard therapy improved several heart failure signs and symptoms, and reduced body weight during hospitalization.

These positive effects were achieved without adversely affecting heart rate, blood pressure, or serum electrolytes. Furthermore, no clinically significant changes in renal function parameters were recorded, although there was a slight increase in serum creatinine. However, the EVEREST program showed that treatment with tolvaptan did not have any effect on long-term mortality or morbidity related to heart failure during a median follow-up of 9.9 months [22], as also observed later [36].

Moreover, the possibility of coupling a VRA with a loop diuretic in the treatment of CHF has been seriously considered by several researchers [31,37]. In particular, Goldsmith SR et al. have observed that the administration of conivaptan is able to increase the diuretic and natriuretic response to furosemide without negatively affecting important hemodynamic variables (heart rate, blood pressure, systemic vascular resistance, and cardiac output), neurohormones, renal plasma flow, and glomerular filtration rate [37]. This approach would suggest treatment regimens that allow one to reduce exposure to loop diuretics and keep an effective decongestion in heart failure, since the VRAs are capable of removing large amounts of free water.

6. Clinical Significance of Hyponatremia and Arginine-Vasopressin in Heart Failure: Markers or Mediators?

Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte disorder observed in hospitalized patients. It is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality and an increased length of hospital stay. Even the conditions of mild chronic hyponatremia may have significant clinical consequences, such as attention deficit, gait disturbance, falls, increased risk of fractures, and reduction in bone mineral density.

Awareness of the importance of an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment is not yet adequately widespread [38], although the conditions of hyponatremia have recently garnered more thoughtful evaluation. With regard to this, perhaps some credit should be given to the addition of VRAs to the pharmacological arsenal.

Indeed, tolvaptan in particular proved to be a therapeutic weapon that is specific and effective not only for the treatment of SIADH but also for the conditions of hypervolemic hyponatremia such as CHF, where the primary cause of hyponatremia is increased ADH release [39].

Increased attention to the problem of hyponatremia also raises a question: Can hyponatremia be regarded just as a marker of disease severity? Or alternatively should it be considered as a pathological alteration in itself that must be diagnosed and treated? In light of the many studies on this issue, the second approach is probably correct, that is, hyponatremia must be considered as a disorder to be dealt with adequately because in this way the patient's quality of life can be improved [40].

7. Conclusions

There is convincing evidence that the use of VRAs is more efficacious than other measures (water restriction and HSS plus furosemide) in the restoration of normal levels of serum sodium in patients with CHF associated with chronic hyponatremia [35]. In addition, the VRAs have been shown to produce beneficial effects on the patient's cardiac decompensation, in particular by inducing reduction or regression of the clinical signs and symptoms of congestion. Nonetheless, in patients with CHF, VRAs did not induce any significant reduction in mortality in medium- and long-term follow-up. Notably, contrary to the water dietary restriction or combined i.v. administration of HSS plus furosemide, these drugs allow one to establish long-term therapies that, once begun in hospital for safety reasons, may be continued at the patient's home, always under close monitoring. Currently, the main problem that limits the use of VRAs is financial in nature, because therapy with these drugs entails very high costs that prevent its adoption for a large number of patients, even in cases in which the clinical condition would require this type of therapy [29].