Effects of myokines on bone.

The links between muscle and bone have been recently examined because of the increasing number of patients with osteoporosis and sarcopenia. Myokines are skeletal muscle-derived humoral cytokines and growth factors, which exert physiological and pathological functions in various distant organs, including the regulation of glucose, energy and bone metabolism. Myostatin is a crucial myokine, the expression of which is mainly limited to muscle tissues. The inhibition of myostatin signaling increases bone remodeling, bone mass and muscle mass, and it may provide a target for the treatment of both sarcopenia and osteoporosis. As myostatin is involved in osteoclast formation and bone destruction in rheumatoid arthritis, myostatin may be a target myokine for the treatment of accelerated bone resorption and joint destruction in rheumatoid arthritis. Numerous other myokines, including transforming growth factor-β, follistatin, insulin-like growth factor-I, fibroblast growth factor-2, osteoglycin, FAM5C, irisin, interleukin (IL)-6, leukemia inhibitory factor, IL-7, IL-15, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, ciliary neurotrophic factor, osteonectin and matrix metalloproteinase 2, also affect bone cells in various manners. However, the effects of myokines on bone metabolism are largely unknown. Further research is expected to clarify the interaction between muscle and bone, which may lead to greater diagnosis and the development of the treatment for muscle and bone disorders, such as osteoporosis and sarcopenia.