Effect of environment and genotypes on the physicochemical quality of the grains of newly developed wheat inbred lines.

To meet the increased demand for wheat consumption, wheat cultivation in Sudan expanded southward to latitudes lower than 15°N, entering a new and warmer environment. Consequently, wheat breeders developed several wheat genotypes with high yields under these environmental conditions; however, the evaluation of the end-use quality of these genotypes is scarce. In this study, we assessed the end-use quality attributes of 20 wheat genotypes grown in three different environments in the Sudan (Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola). The results showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in all quality tests among environments, genotypes and genotypes Versus environments. The findings obtained, covered wide ranges of test weight (TW, 76.6-85.25 kg/hL), thousand kernel weight (TKW, 28.70-48.48 g), protein (PC, 9.96-14.06%), wet gluten (WG, 28.63-46.53%), gluten index (GI, 36.36-92.77%), water holding capacity (WHC, 168.42-219.32%), falling number (FN, 508.00-974.67 sec), and sedimentation value (SV, 19.00-40.00 mL). Analysis of the traits, genotypes, and traits versus genotypes showed varied correlations in the three growing environments. The genotype G3 grown in either one or all of the three environments exhibits worthy performance and stability for most of the tested quality traits. The crossing of this genotype with high yield genotypes could produce cultivars with sufficient quality and marketability.

Introduction

Wheat is an important and most widely cultivated food crop in the world. This crop played a central role in combating hunger and improving the global food security. Wheat is ranked second in total cereal production behind corn, with rice being the third (FAO, 2012). The grains of this plant provide about 20% of all calories and proteins consumed by people on the globe (Shiferaw et al. 2013). In recent years, demand for wheat has significantly increased as a result of the global population growth, and thus wheat production has a strategic role in food security and the world economy. As a result, horizontal expansion of wheat production has arisen in recent years by moving wheat into nontraditional areas formerly considered unacceptable for production. However, the global warming introduced various abiotic stresses such as drought, temperature extremes, and salinity that adversely affect the yield and grains quality of wheat (Huseynova and Rustamova 2010). To meet the demands of future population's explosions and ensure grain production in these environments, cultivars must be developed and evaluated for their high yield and high quality. Thus, the objective of wheat breeders is to produce well‐adapted and high‐yielding varieties with finest end‐use quality (Lopes et al. 2012; Li et al. 2013).

In Sudan, wheat is the second most essential cereal food and the main staple food for many peoples in both rural and urban areas. This crop is traditionally cultivated in the northern region of Sudan where the winter conditions are favorable for plant growth and grain yield. However, in the last decades wheat cultivation in Sudan expanded southward to latitudes lower than 15°N, entering a new and warmer environment and inhabiting most of the irrigated sectors in central and northern states (Elsheikh et al. 2015). The average annual production of wheat during the period 2009–2013 was 242,000 tons and is forecasted to rise to 320,000 tons in 2014 with 32% change (FAO, 2014). Nevertheless, the rate of wheat grain production in the Sudan is far below the consumption needs. High temperature and drought stresses, low nitrogen content, and lack of quality seeds of improved varieties are the main constraints limiting wheat production in Sudan (Ali et al. 2006; El Siddig et al. 2013). To overcome these limitations wheat breeders have developed several varieties and inbred lines with enhanced tolerance to most of these stresses (Elahmadi 1996; Ali et al. 2006), and with better grain yield and quality. Although the grain yield of these advanced wheat lines has been extensively studied by many researchers, reports on the end‐use quality of these lines are rare (Ali et al. 2006). Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to examine the effect of growing environment on end‐use quality characteristics of twenty wheat genotypes grown in three different environments (Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola) in the Sudan.

Materials and Methods

Plant materials and field trials

In this study, 20 wheat genotypes representing a broad range of yield and adaptability to the environment of the Sudan were used (Table 1). These genotypes were developed through extensive wheat breeding programs at the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), Gazira, Sudan. All materials were grown for two constitutive seasons (2003/2004 and 2004/2005) in three different environments (Dongola, Hudeiba, and Wad Medani) representing both the traditional and new wheat growing environments in the Sudan. The three growing environments are characterized by their different soil and environmental conditions with no precipitation during the whole crop cycle. Dongola is located in Northern State (Lat. 19° 08′ N, Long. 30° 40′ E, and Alt. 240 m) with a warm (average temperature 21.8°C) and dry winter. The soil of Dongola is classified as sandy clay loam with very low organic matters (>5%), high water permeability, and a pH of 8.0. Whereas, Hudeiba is located in the Nile State (Lat. 17° 34′ N, Long. 33° 56′ E, and Alt. 350 m) and has warm (average temperature 24.2°C) and dry winter. The soil of Hudeiba is classified as karusoil clay (contained 4% sand, 40% silt, and 56% clay) with little nitrogen (360 ppm), phosphorus (8 ppm), and organic carbon, and a pH of 8.1. While Wad Medani is located in central Sudan (Lat. 14° 24′ N, Long. 29° 33′ E, and Alt. 407 m) having a slightly hot (average temperature 26.8°C) and dry winter. The soil type of Wad Medani is heavy cracking vertisoil (58–66% clay) with very low water permeability, organic carbon (0.35%), nitrogen (0.03%), phosphorus (4 ppm), and a pH 8.3

Table 1

Genotypes used in the current study

Genotypes code	Pedigree/Variety
G1	ELNeilain
G2	Debeira
G3	RGO/SERI/TRAP//Bow
G4	KAU2 * CHEN//BCN. CMB
G5	SON64/SRC – LR64A) G155
G6	427F4/2000‐1
G7	PYT#23 (DWR39xCONDOR “S”)14PxT
G8	KAUZ “S” 6 57C1‐3‐6.2‐2‐1‐2
G9	TEVEE “S”/SHUHA “S”
G10	N5732/HER//CASKOR
G11	ELNEILAIN/SASARIBE
G12	CONDOR “S”/14PYT//DWR39
G13	VERONA/KAUZ//KAUZ
G14	ELNEILAIN/DEBEIRA
G15	OASIS/KUAZ//3 * BCN
G16	CONDOR “S”/BALADI//DEBEIRA
G17	DH5
G18	DH8
G19	IHSGE # 19
G20	IHSGE # 20

In the three growing environments, the experiments were structured in a randomized complete block design with three replications. After soil harrowing and leveling, the seeds were seeded manually in rows of 0.2 m apart in plots consisting of 4 rows of 5 m length at a seeding rate of 120 kg/ha. The seeds were treated with Gaucho (Imidacloprid 35% WP) at a rate of about 1 g/1 kg seed to control pests mainly termites and aphids. Phosphorus was applied by furrow placement prior to sowing at the rate of 43 kg P2O5/ha, while nitrogen, in the form of urea, was implemented before the second irrigation at a rate of 86 kg N/ha. Irrigation intervals were every 10–12 days, and weeding was carried out manually at least twice.

Samples preparation

The wheat grains were manually cleaned and then the grains thousand kernels and test weights were evaluated. The samples were tempered and milled into straight grade flour (72% extraction rate) using a Brabender Quadrumat Junior Mill (Brabender, GmbH & Co. KG, Duisburg, Germany). After that, the flour samples were placed in a separate plastic container and stored in a deep freezer until used for biochemical analysis. Three independent replicates of each sample were used for biochemical analysis.

Chemical composition

Moisture, ash, crude protein (N × 5.7), and fat content of the flour samples were measured according to the official standard method (AACC, 2000).

Gluten quantity and quality

Wet gluten (WG), dry gluten (DG), water holding capacity (WHC), and gluten index (GI) were determined according to the standard method 38–12.02 (AACC, 2000) using a Glutomatic 2200 systems and a Perten 2015 centrifuge (Perten Instrument, AB, Huddinge, Sweden).

Falling number

Falling number (FN) of wheat flours was determined using the falling number instruments following the Official Method 56–81.03 (AACC, 2000) and expressed on 14% moisture basis.

Sedimentation value

Zeleny sedimentation value of wheat flours was measured according to the standard method 56–60.01 (AACC, 2000) and expressed on 14% moisture basis.

Statistical analyses

For the grains of individual wheat genotypes grown in each environment, the data of three independent experiments were first separately analyzed, and then the results were combined to determine the interactive effects of genotypes and growing environments. The data were assessed by analysis of variance (Gomez and Gomez 1984) and Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT). Correlation coefficients among all quality traits were evaluated based on the means of all genotypes in the individual environment using Stat View software. Exploratory multivariate statistical analysis of the data was performed using HJ‐biplot methods included in the MULTBIPLOT software (Vicente‐Villardón 2010). The HJ‐Biplot method allows the plotting of both genotypes and wheat quality traits with an optimum quality of representation and hence provides easy and fast information about the interrelation of the plotted data. To ascribe a set of individuals to a particular group, we performed hierarchical clustering analysis with the Euclidean distance using the principal components scores and the Ward's technique as the process of linkage. Significance was accepted at P ≤ 0.05, P ≤ 0.01, and P ≤ 0.001.

Results and Discussion

Grain physical characteristics

Thousand kernels (TKW) and test weight (TW) of wheat genotypes grown in three different environments are shown in Table 2. The TKW and TW of all genotypes were significantly varied (P ≤ 0.01) between the three environments. These results revealed that the variation in the environmental and soil conditions between the three environments could contribute to the differences in the wheat grain weight. In addition, the interaction between the wheat genotypes and the growing environment was also significant (P ≤ 0.01) for both traits. The highest mean values of TKW and TW were observed for G5 at Hudeiba and G19 at Dongola while the lowest values were obtained for G12 at Wad Medani and G3 at Hudeiba, respectively. Regarding the environments, the highest mean values of TKW and TW for all genotypes were at Hudeiba and Dongola while the lowest values were at Wad Medani and Hudeiba, respectively. Throughout all the three environments, the mean TW was in the range of 78.02–82.83 kg/hL, which indicates that all wheat genotypes exhibit well‐filled grains (Kaya and Akcura, 2014; Li et al. 2013). Overall, the results of the TKW and TW demonstrated that the environmental conditions (temperature and soil fertility), agronomic practices (irrigation and fertilization), and wheat genotypes could affect the grain physical characteristic and hence the flour yield and end‐use quality. Previous reports showed that environmental conditions and fertilizers application had a significant impact on the TKW and TW of various wheat genotypes (Lopes et al. 2012; Mohammadi 2012; Li et al. 2013; Bouacha et al. 2014; Kaya and Akcura 2014). In addition, water deficit and elevated temperatures above average during grain filling reported to reduce the TKW for winter wheat (Erekul and Kohn 2006). Mohammadi (2012) concluded that wheat cultivars capable of maintaining high TKW under heat stress appeared to possess a greater tolerance for warm environments. While Lopes et al. (2012) suggested the use of TKW for selection of wheat genotypes under a warm environment of the Sudan.

Table 2

Thousand kernel weight (g) and test weight (kg/ha) of 20 wheat genotypes grown in three environments

Genotypes	1000 Kernel weight (TKW)				Test weight (TW)
	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean
G1	35.81tuv	46.21a	36.97ij	39.66fg	82.03i	80.40nop	84.54b	82.32b
G2	35.20v	44.82cd	36.76rs	38.92hi	82.53fg	79.65rs	82.45gh	81.54f
G3	36.38st	44.24de	40.44hi	40.35de	77.33v	76.60w	80.14opq	78.02m
G4	35.52uv	44.53d	41.08gh	40.37d	81.45jk	80.89lm	84.40b	82.24b
G5	39.48jkl	48.48a	43.66ef	43.87a	82.50g	80.89lm	83.58cd	82.32b
G6	37.17pqr	45.50bc	38.98klm	40.55cd	81.43k	79.63rs	83.45d	81.50fg
G7	35.86tuv	39.70ijk	36.18stu	37.25j	82.11hi	79.95qr	79.55st	80.54i
G8	31.22y	36.54rst	33.52xy	33.76l	82.08hi	78.11u	82.45gh	80.88h
G9	33.77xy	43.81de	39.71ijk	39.09h	81.55jk	80.25op	83.35d	81.71ef
G10	33.63xy	44.76c	39.38ijk	39.25gh	79.21t	77.50v	80.50no	79.07l
G11	37.88nop	44.32de	40.83gh	41.01bc	82.70efg	81.50jk	84.30b	82.83a
G12	28.70z	40.75h	34.30wx	34.58K	80.25op	80.05pq	84.35b	81.55f
G13	37.84opq	44.64cd	41.73g	41.40B	81.81ij	79.54st	82.66fg	81.34g
G14	31.42y	37.63opq	34.70w	34.58K	78.11u	81.40k	79.55st	79.68j
G15	30.09z	38.88klm	35.26v	34.74k	81.45jk	80.25op	83.85c	81.85de
G16	30.71z	35.52uv	33.17yz	33.13m	82.01i	81.30k	83.00e	82.10bc
G17	31.24y	46.14b	38.22mno	38.54i	82.75efg	81.20kl	82.90ef	82.28b
G18	33.42y	42.82f	39.20jkl	38.48i	79.31st	79.14t	79.55st	79.33k
G19	31.91y	41.55g	38.72lmn	37.39j	80.73mn	79.95qr	85.25a	81.97cd
G20	35.14v	44.71cd	39.96ij	39.94ef	80.50no	79.55st	82.45gh	80.83h
Mean	34.12c	42.78a	38.14b	38.34	81.09b	79.88c	82.61a	81.19

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) from each other, according to Duncan's multiple range test.

The grain physical characteristics TKW and TW have no correlation with all other quality traits of all genotypes grown in Wad Medani, whereas they showed some correlations with the quality traits in other environments (Table 3). At Hudeiba, TKW showed a significant positive correlation (*P < 0.05, r = 0.49) with PC, while it showed highly significant negative correlation (**P < 0.01, r = −0.61) with GI. The TW, on the other hand, showed significantly negative (*P < 0.05) correlations with the SV at Hudeiba (r = −0.44) and with GI at Dongola (r = −0.50). These results suggest that the association between grain physical characteristics (TKW and TW) and the flour quality traits mainly PC, GI, and SV depend primarily on the environmental conditions rather than the genetic makeup of the cultivar. Similarly, positive correlations between TKW and PC have been reported for wheat cultivars and landraces grown in the subhumid region following K‐fertilizers treatment (Bouacha et al. 2014). By contrast, negative correlations between grain physical characteristics and flour PC and SV for other wheat genotypes have also been reported (Ozturk and Aydin 2004; Tahir et al. 2006).

Table 3

Correlation coefficient between the physicochemical quality parameters of wheat genotypes grown in three different environments (Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola)

	TKW	AC	MC	TW	GI	WHC	FN	SV	WG	DG	PC
Wad Medani
AC	0.10
MC	0.38	0.03
TW	0.19	−0.17	0.21
GI	−0.04	0.19	−0.34	−0.04
WHC	0.18	−0.32	−0.20	−0.25	0.53 *
FN	0.17	0.25	0.19	−0.32	0.37	0.35
SV	−0.16	−0.53 *	0.06	−0.12	−0.25	0.11	−0.23
WG	−0.21	−0.37	0.22	−0.06	−0.83 ***	−0.44	−0.39	0.55 *
DG	−0.21	−0.22	0.24	0.08	−0.86 ***	−0.68 ***	−0.45 *	0.42	0.94 ***
PC	−0.19	−0.37	0.21	−0.20	−0.43	0.02	0.03	0.69 ***	0.64 ***	0.50 *
FC	−0.36	0.19	−0.26	−0.43	0.25	0.11	−0.08	0.35	0.04	−0.02	0.07
Hudeiba
AC	−0.27
MC	0.01	−0.17
TW	−0.05	−0.47 *	0.29
GI	−0.61 **	−0.20	−0.02	0.02
WHC	−0.22	−0.06	0.24	0.10	0.17
FN	−0.02	0.07	−0.14	−0.03	−0.01	−0.05
SV	−0.15	−0.15	−0.01	−0.44 *	0.25	0.30	0.47 *
WG	0.41	0.02	0.02	−0.36	−0.47 *	−0.39	0.48 *	0.45 *
DG	0.39	0.04	−0.03	−0.35	−0.42	−0.64 ***	0.41	0.29	0.96 ***
PC	0.49 *	−0.02	−0.18	−0.32	−0.61 **	−0.40	0.36	0.35	0.83 ***	0.80 ***
FC	−0.20	0.09	−0.31	−0.17	0.24	0.10	0.67 ***	0.59 **	0.26	0.21	0.26
Dongola
AC	−0.05
MC	0.15	−0.24
TW	0.10	−0.02	−0.18
GI	−0.41	0.02	−0.26	−0.50 *
WHC	0.42	−0.07	−0.20	−0.28	0.25
FN	−0.39	0.21	−0.67 ***	−0.02	0.42	0.04
SV	−0.17	−0.51 *	0.25	−0.44	0.50 *	0.15	−0.11
WG	0.05	−0.49 *	0.33	0.20	−0.48 *	−0.28	−0.35	0.21
DG	−0.09	−0.31	0.35	0.26	−0.51 *	−0.70 ***	−0.31	0.05	0.87 ***
PC	0.12	−0.10	0.54 *	−0.11	−0.03	−0.16	−0.22	0.31	0.52 *	0.48 *
FC	0.02	0.19	0.21	−0.14	−0.18	−0.17	0.07	−0.14	−0.16	0.02	0.14

TKW, Thousand‐kernel weight; AC, Ash content; MC, Moisture content; TW, test weight; GI, Gluten index; WHC, Water holding capacity; FN, Falling number; SV, Sedimentation value; WG, Wet gluten; DG, Dry gluten; PC, Protein content; FC, Fat content.

Values in bold are significant at *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

The results of moisture, ash, protein, and fat content are presented in Table 4. The moisture content (MC) was in the range of 11.38–13.13%, 10.85–12.48%, and 10.21–12.21% for the genotypes grown at Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively. Significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in MC among all environments, indicating that environments had influenced the flour moisture content. Although it has no correlation with other traits in Wad Medani and Hudeiba, MC demonstrated extremely negative correlation (***P < 0.001, r = −0.67) with FN and positive correlation (*P < 0.05, r = 0.54) with PC at Dongola (Table 3). The highest mean value for MC (12.31%) among all genotypes was observed in Wad Medani while lowest value (11.61%) was scored in Dongola. Regardless of the environment, the highest MC was recorded for G5 that was significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) from all other genotypes, while the lowest value was observed for G6. Regarding the interaction between wheat genotype and growing environment, the highest MC (13.13%) was obtained for G13 grown at Wad Medani, whereas the lowest value (10.21%) was noticed for G2 grown at Dongola. The results achieved agreed with values obtained by Makawi et al. (2013) who stated that the moisture content of Sudanese wheat cultivars ranged from 10.40 to 12.07%. The variation in MC of the different wheat genotypes may be due to the variations in environmental conditions between the three environments, the genotypes, and their interaction. Moisture content is mostly affected by relative humidity at harvest and during storage (Makawi et al. 2013).

Table 4

Moisture, ash, protein, and fat content (%) of 20 local wheat genotypes grown in three environments

Variety/Lines	Moisture (MC)				Ash (AC)				Protein (PC)				Fat (FC)
	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean
G1	12.79b	11.44z	11.60uvwxyz	11.94defg	0.69efghi	0.61jklmno	0.61jklmno	0.64fgh	10.58u	12.31lmn	12.12mno	11.67h	1.15lmn	1.03pqr	0.93r	1.04g
G2	12.63c	11.31z	10.21z	11.38j	0.67fghijk	0.68fghij	0.71defgh	0.68cde	9.97w	13.03fg	12.04no	11.68h	1.44de	1.74a	1.13mno	1.43a
G3	12.11Ijk	11.71qrstuvwx	12.15hijk	11.99cd	0.73cdef	0.76bcd	0.73cdef	0.74b	11.15q	13.60bcd	12.36klm	12.37c	1.38efg	1.41def	1.46d	1.41a
G4	12.07jklm	11.65rstuvwx	11.82nopqr	11.85efg	0.63ijklmn	0.57o	0.79b	0.66efg	10.94qrs	14.06a	13.87ab	12.96b	0.99r	1.35fgh	1.22jkl	1.19e
G5	12.15hijk	12.48cde	12.18hij	12.27a	0.61jklmno	0.61klmno	0.66ghijk	0.63gh	9.99w	13.24ef	12.55jkl	11.92g	1.03pqr	1.00r	0.93r	0.99h
G6	12.27fghi	11.22z	10.27z	11.25k	0.63ijklmn	0.63ijklm	0.72cdefg	0.66efg	10.06w	11.05q	11.96o	11.02i	0.96r	1.01qr	1.17klmn	1.04g
G7	12.37efg	11.60uvwxyz	12.06jklm	12.01bc	0.63ijklmn	0.77bc	0.59mno	0.66ef	10.36v	12.63ijk	13.55cd	12.18def	1.05opqr	1.23jk	1.09nopq	1.12f
G8	12.61c	11.08z	11.81nopqrs	11.83fg	0.69fghi	0.66ghijk	0.66ghijkl	0.67ef	11.40p	12.09mno	12.79ghij	12.09ef	1.01qr	1.45def	1.40def	1.28d
G9	12.62c	11.52yz	12.19ghij	12.11b	0.47p	0.50p	0.59mno	0.52j	13.40de	13.13f	13.76b	13.43a	0.91r	1.15lmn	1.35fgh	1.14f
G10	12.33efgh	11.53yz	12.21ghij	12.02bc	0.59mno	0.64ijklmn	0.59mno	0.61hi	10.66tu	13.00fg	13.42de	12.36c	1.44de	1.14r	1.27hij	1.28d
G11	12.61c	11.55wxyz	11.85nopq	12.00cd	0.75bcde	0.56o	0.71defgh	0.67ef	11.53p	11.53p	13.16f	12.07efg	1.26ij	1.11mnop	1.23jk	1.20e
G12	12.24fghij	11.81nopqrs	11.93lmno	11.99cd	0.62jklmno	0.74bcde	0.72cdefg	0.70 cd	12.25lmn	12.63ijk	13.68bc	12.85b	1.41def	1.13mno	1.10mnop	1.21e
G13	13.13a	11.18z	11.77opqrstu	12.02bc	0.85a	0.78bc	0.71defgh	0.78a	10.77stu	13.19f	13.03fg	12.33cd	1.13mno	1.29hij	1.46d	1.29d
G14	11.91mnop	11.97jklmn	11.63stuvwxy	11.83fg	0.81a	0.63ijklmn	0.78bc	0.74b	10.94qrs	9.96w	13.51cd	11.47h	1.32ghi	1.29hij	1.00r	1.20e
G15	12.56cd	10.85z	11.65rstuvwx	11.68h	0.61jklmno	0.71defg	0.70defgh	0.68def	11.04qr	12.97fgh	13.05fg	12.35c	1.35fgh	1.46d	1.46d	1.42a
G16	11.78opqrst	12.41def	11.57vwxyz	11.92cdef	0.67fghij	0.61jklmno	0.71defgh	0.66ef	9.59x	11.19q	11.40p	10.72j	1.23jk	1.24ijk	1.18klm	1.21e
G17	11.38z	11.47z	11.64rstuvwxy	11.49i	0.70defgh	0.49p	0.65hijklm	0.61hi	10.88st	13.08fg	12.73hij	12.23cde	1.42def	1.54c	0.94r	1.30d
G18	12.22ghij	11.61tuvwxy	11.54xyz	11.79g	0.72cdefg	0.78bc	0.75bcde	0.75b	11.35p	12.39klm	12.36klm	12.03fg	1.64b	1.29hij	1.23jk	1.38b
G19	12.10jkl	11.74pqrstu	11.23z	11.69h	0.70efgh	0.78bc	0.67fghijk	0.71bc	10.11vw	11.13q	12.15mno	11.13i	1.64b	1.26ij	1.05opqr	1.32cd
G20	12.37efg	12.05jklmn	11.25z	11.89defg	0.58no	0.59mno	0.60lmno	0.59i	12.81ghi	12.55jkl	13.11f	12.82b	1.65b	1.40def	1.01qr	1.35bc
Mean	12.31a	11.61b	11.63b	11.85	0.67b	0.65c	0.68a	0.67	10.99c	12.44b	12.83a	12.08	1.27a	1.27a	1.18b	1.24

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) from each other, according to Duncan's multiple range test.

Statistical analysis showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in AC among the growing environments, indicating that the environment had affected the flour ash content (Table 4). Throughout the three areas, the highest mean value (0.68%) of AC for all genotypes was obtained at Wad Medani while the lowest value (0.65%) was observed at Hudeiba. The AC showed significantly negative correlations (*P < 0.05) with SV at Wad Medani (r = −0.53) and Dongola (r = −0.51), with TW at Wad Medani (r = −0.47), and with WG and Dongola (r = −0.49) (Table 3). Among wheat genotypes grown in the three environments, G13 had the highest AC, whereas G9 had the lowest. The differences seen in the AC in the present study may be attributed to differences in wheat genotypes and environmental conditions (temperature and soil conditions) as well as fertilizers application (Makawi et al. 2013).

Wheat grain protein is of primary importance in determining the end use quality of the flour and variations in both protein content and composition could significantly affect the flour quality. The crude protein (PC) content was found to be in the range of 9.59–13.40%, 9.96–14.06%, and 11.40–13.87% for the growing environments Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively (Table 4). The results revealed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in the PC among the wheat genotypes and their interaction with the growing environments. These findings indicated that both the genotypes and the growing environment had influenced the flour protein content. Throughout the three growing environments, the highest mean value (13.43%) of PC was found for genotypes grown in Dongola while the lowest value (10.99%) was observed in those grown in Wad Medani. Regarding the interaction, the highest value was obtained for G4 in Hudeiba and Dongola while the lowest value was obtained for G16 at Wad Medani. This result agreed with the outcome of Elmobarak et al. (2004) who stated that wheat grown at Wad Medani gave lower grain protein content compared to that of North Sudan. The variation in PC in the current study may be due to variation in environmental conditions such as heat, drought, and soil fertility (Elmobarak et al. 2004), as well as genotypes. Tolbert (2004) found out that increasing nitrogen fertilizer increased the protein content of flour and the arrival time of dough. Many experiments and practical experience of wheat researchers show that the protein content of the grains and flours is greatly depend on agronomical practices, genotypes, soil N content, heat, and drought stresses (Morris et al. 2004; Tahir et al. 2006; Li et al. 2013; Bouacha et al. 2014; Kaya and Akcura 2014). In the current study, PC showed varied degrees of positive correlations with both WG and DG at the three growing environments (Table 3). It showed highly (***P < 0.001) positive correlation with WG at Wad Medani (r = 0.64) and Hudeiba (r = 0.83) and with DG at Hudeiba (r = 0.80) as well as a positive (*P < 0.05) correlation with WG at Dongola (r = 0.52) and DG at Wad Medani (r = 0.50) and Dongola (r = 0.48). Although, these results suggest the dependence of these quality traits on the genotypes rather than the growing environment. However, the crop management practices could have some impacts on these characters. Similar to our findings, previous reports showed the definite interrelation between PC, WG, and DG (Ozturk and Aydin 2004; Kaur et al. 2013; Kaya and Akcura 2014).

There were significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in fat content (FC) within the three environments and wheat genotypes (Table 4). Regarding the growing area, the highest mean value of FC was obtained for Hudeiba and Dongola while the lowest value was obtained for Wad Medani. Among genotypes, G2 showed that the highest FC while G5 showed the lowest value. Overall all, MC, AC, PC, and FC of the wheat genotypes of the current study depended greatly on the genotypes, the growing environment and the interaction between genotypes and environments.

Mean values of wet gluten (WG) of wheat genotypes grown in the three environments were significantly varied (P ≤ 0.01) depending on the differences in the genotypes and growing environments as well as the interaction between these factors (Table 5). The mean values of WG ranged from 32.39 to 46.94%, 28.63 to 46.53%, and 35.5 to 44.26% for the wheat genotypes grown at Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively. Regardless of the growing environment, the WG contents of all wheat genotypes in the current study are more than 28% and are, therefore, at a high to the very high range. Recently, in a multienvironment trial for Turkish wheat genotypes the wet gluten content was varied from 28 to 37% depending on the variation in the environment, genotype, and their interaction (Kaya and Akcura 2014). The highest mean value for WG was obtained for G12 (46.94%) and G20 (46.53%) grown at Wad Medani and Hudeiba, respectively, while the lowest value was recorded for G14 (28.63%) cultivated at Hudeiba. Throughout the growing environment, both Dongola and Hudeiba are suitable conditions for WG content compared to Wad Medani. This result indicates that the growing environment influence WG content of these genotypes and hence the gluten quality. The variation in WG could be attributed to the differences in the genotypes, agronomical practices, and environmental conditions such as temperature and soil fertility. Similarly, significant variation in WG content due to the difference in wheat genotypes and growing environment has been reported (Kaya and Akcura 2014).

Table 5

The values (%) of wet and dry gluten, gluten index, and water holding capacity of twenty local wheat genotypes grown in three environments

Genotypes	Wet gluten (WG)				Dry gluten (DG)				Gluten index (GI)				Water holing capacity (WHC)
	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean
G1	37.32klmn	38.78hijk	38.43hijk	38.18fg	12.67efghi	13.58cdefg	12.60fghi	12.95fgh	64.04lmno	50.42qr	69.22ijkl	61.23j	194.43defgh	185.66efghi	205.16abcd	195.08ef
G2	34.47pq	43.55bcd	35.50op	37.84ghi	11.09kl	14.10bcdef	11.73ijkl	12.31hij	85.12bcd	56.47opq	92.77a	78.12bcd	210.68abcd	209.33abcd	202.60abcde	207.54bc
G3	36.20nop	45.00b	36.13nop	39.11de	11.54jkl	16.16a	11.66ijkl	13.12efg	73.86ghij	63.44lmno	69.61ijkl	68.97gh	213.79abcd	185.37efghi	209.70abcd	202.95bcde
G4	36.50mon	44.06bc	38.38hijk	39.65de	11.90ijkl	14.96bc	12.46ghij	13.11efgh	71.04hijkl	53.04pqr	64.42klmno	62.83ij	206.60abcd	194.96defgh	207.86abcd	203.14bcde
G5	40.23fgh	40.63fgh	41.60def	40.82c	14.06bcdef	13.70cdefg	13.53cdefg	13.76cde	64.03lmno	36.36s	49.22r	49.87 l	186.33efghi	196.87cdefg	207.33abcd	196.84def
G6	36.29no	34.61pq	37.43klmn	36.11k	11.50jkl	12.09hijk	11.70ijkl	11.76jk	76.75efgh	67.10jklm	67.94ijklm	70.60fgh	216.03abc	186.63efghi	218.16a	206.94bcde
G7	33.18qr	39.86ghij	39.30ghij	37.45hi	11.13jkl	14.30bcde	12.86efghi	12.76ghi	92.17a	61.00mnop	90.90ab	81.36b	197.96cdefg	179.45ghi	205.45abcd	194.29efg
G8	38.54hijk	36.85lmno	41.66def	39.02ef	13.69cdefg	12.25ghij	14.10bcdef	13.34defg	71.59hijk	82.87cdef	64.36klmno	72.94efg	181.50ghi	200.85bcdef	195.83defgh	192.73fgh
G9	43.10 cd	42.75 cd	42.53de	42.79b	13.66cdefg	14.33bcd	14.10bcdef	14.03bcd	64.38klmno	66.52klm	74.72ghij	68.54h	215.60abc	198.40bcdefg	201.99abcde	205.33bcd
G10	37.27lkmn	38.86hijk	38.36ijkl	38.16fgh	12.47ghij	13.43defgh	12.26ghij	12.72ghi	73.47ghij	68.07ijklm	78.81defgh	73.45ef	198.77bcdefg	189.62efgh	212.80abcd	200.39cdef
G11	33.20qr	34.24pq	36.33no	34.59l	11.03kl	11.78ijkl	11.70ijkl	11.50kl	83.11cde	75.25efgh	81.37cdef	79.91bc	201.03abcde	190.66defgh	210.52abcd	200.74bcdef
G12	46.94a	42.00def	43.26 cd	44.07a	15.66a	15.00b	15.30b	15.32a	57.86nopq	64.53klmno	66.09klmn	62.83ij	170.92i	180.03ghi	182.80fghi	177.92i
G13	40.96ef	40.00fgh	39.20ghij	40.05cd	14.44bcd	14.36bcd	14.60bcd	14.46bc	59.28nop	48.05r	55.96opq	54.43k	168.42j	178.66hi	184.30fghi	177.12i
G14	34.37pq	28.63s	37.53klmn	33.51m	11.39jkl	8.96m	12.40ghij	10.92 l	83.43bcde	84.39bcd	92.17a	86.66a	201.43abcde	219.32a	202.79abcde	207.84b
G15	39.34ghij	38.66hijk	39.20ghij	39.07ef	13.45defgh	14.02bcdef	13.56cdefg	13.67def	68.18ijkl	64.42klmno	67.26ijklm	66.62hi	194.06defgh	175.92i	188.92efgh	186.30ghi
G16	32.39r	35.93nop	35.53op	34.61l	10.71 l	12.16hijk	11.96ijkl	11.61jkl	85.99abc	79.02defgh	80.58cdefg	81.86b	202.18abcde	195.43defgh	196.38cdefg	197.99cdef
G17	38.32ijklm	37.53klmn	40.83efg	38.89ef	13.31defgh	13.56cdefg	14.16bcdef	13.68def	73.54ghij	77.02efgh	75.02fghi	75.19de	188.23efghi	177.25hi	188.35efghi	184.61hi
G18	38.06jklm	36.36no	36.80 lmno	37.07ij	12.48ghij	11.83ijkl	11.60ijkl	11.97ijk	80.33cdefg	63.72lmno	85.05bcd	76.37cde	205.10abcd	207.32abcd	217.20ab	209.87a
G19	36.74lmno	35.03op	37.50klmn	36.42jk	11.93ijkl	11.90ijkl	12.30ghij	12.04ijk	86.87abc	72.51ghijk	75.88efgh	78.42bcd	208.43abcd	195.35defgh	205.07abcd	202.95bcde
G20	41.60def	46.53a	44.26bc	44.13a	13.45defgh	16.76a	14.03bcdef	14.75ab	72.33hijk	75.58efgh	71.67hijk	73.19ef	209.43abcd	179.05ghi	215.43abc	201.30bcde
Mean	37.75b	38.99a	38.99a	38.58	12.58c	13.46a	12.93b	12.99	74.37a	65.49b	73.65a	71.17	194.43a	191.31b	202.14a	197.59

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) from each other, according to Duncan's multiple range test.

The results showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in dry gluten (DG) among genotypes, growing environments, and the genotype‐environment interaction (Table 5). The DG values for the genotypes in the three environments ranged from 10.71 to 15.66% at Wad Medani, 8.96 to 16.76% at Hudeiba, 11.60 to 15.3% at Dongola. Concerning growing area, DG content was higher at Hudeiba followed by Dongola and then Wad Medani. Regardless of the growing environment and throughout all genotypes, the highest mean for DG was obtained for G12 while the lowest value was obtained for G14. Regarding the interaction, the highest value was obtained for G20 (16.76%) and G3 (16.16%) at Hudeiba and G12 (15.66%) at Wad Medani, while the lowest value (8.96%) was obtained for G14 in Hudeiba. The yield of DG was closely associated with the total protein of these wheat lines. These results agreed with those reported previously for other of wheat genotypes (Makawi et al. 2013).

The gluten index (GI) is a predictive method of gluten strength and thus it is a good indicator for gluten quality and quantity (Vida et al. 2014). Wide variations (P ≤ 0.01) in the GI of 20 wheat genotypes grown in three different environments were explicitly noted (Table 5) and associated with genotypes, growing environments, and the interaction between these factors. The range values of GI for the genotypes were 57.86–92.17%, 36.36–84.39%, and 49.22–92.77% of the growing environments Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively. Strikingly, the gluten index of all wheat genotypes fall within the optimal range (55–100) for breadmaking (Har Gil et al. 2011; Makawi et al. 2013) when they grow in Wad Medani. Throughout the three growing environments, the highest mean for GI obtained were 92.77% and 92.17% at Dongola and Wad Medani, respectively, while the lowest value (36.36%) was observed at Hudeiba. Among genotypes and regardless of the environment, the results showed that G14 has the highest (86.66%) mean value of GI while G5 has the lowest value. Our findings demonstrated that genotypes, growing environments, and their interaction significantly affected GI, with the highest effect being from the genotypes. In agreement with our findings, Vida et al. (2014) reported that the gluten index had the greatest dependence on the genotype compared to environmental factors and agronomic treatments. Furthermore, the more significant effect of genotype on the gluten index compared to the impact of environment and fertilizer application was recently reported (Bouacha et al. 2014). GI correlated positively (*P < 0.05) with WHC (r = 0.53) at Wad Medani and with SV (r = 0.50) at Dongola, while it showed negative correlations with WG at Wad Medani (***P < 0.001, r = −0.83), Hudeiba (*P < 0.05, r = −0.47) and Dongola (*P < 0.05, r = −0.48) (Table 3). GI also correlated negatively with DG at Wad Medani (***P < 0.001, r = −0.86) and Dongola (*P < 0.05, r = −0.51), and with PC at Hudeiba (**P < 0.01, r = −0.61). These results indicate a contradicting response between GI and the three major wheat quality parameters (PC, WG, and DG) and therefore much concern has to be considered when using GI for wheat quality evaluation (Bonfil and Posner 2012; Kaur et al. 2013).

The results showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in the water holding capacity (WHC) among environments and genotypes as well as the interaction between genotypes and environments (Table 5). The mean values of WHC were 168.42–216.03%, 175.92–219.32%, and 182.8–218.16% for the genotypes grown at Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively. Throughout the three growing environments, WHC showed extremely negative (***P < 0.001) correlation with DG (r = −0.64 to −0.70), whereas the correlations between WG and DG were highly positive (***P < 0.001, r = 0.87–0.96) (Table 3). The highest mean percentages for WHC of gluten was obtained for G14 (219.32%) and G6 (218.16%) grown at Hudeiba and Dongola, respectively, while the lowest value was observed for G13 (168.42%) cultivated at Wad Medani. Throughout all the three environments, the results indicated highest WHC for G18 while the lowest value was obtained for G13. Between environments, not all varieties varied in the same manner; however, some had the same general score in all areas, whereas others varied. This variation may be due to the effect of environmental conditions such as heat stress, soil conditions, and agronomical practices.

Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in the mean falling number (FN) of 20 wheat genotypes grown in three different environments (Table 6), indicating that environmental conditions had influenced the flour FN. In addition, the interaction between genotypes and growing environments was also significantly affected the α‐amylase activity. The FN values were ranged from 532.67 to 715.0 sec, 508.00 to 656.67 sec, and 594.33 to 974.67 sec for the genotypes cultivated at Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola, respectively. These results were in good agreement with the data reported by Kaur et al. (2013) who found that the falling number of Indian wheat cultivars was high and ranged from 485 to 967 sec. Through the three environments, the highest FN was obtained at Dongola while the lowest value was obtained at Hudeiba. FN correlated positively with SV (*P < 0.05, r = 0.47), WG (*P < 0.05, r = 0.48), and FC (***P < 0.001, r = 0.67) at Hudeiba, while it showed negative correlation with DG (*P < 0.05, r = −0.45) at Wad Medani (Table 3). Among all genotypes, the highest falling number recorded for G2 while the lowest value was obtained for G5. The Sudanese wheat genotypes possess very high FN and thus indicate flours with a little α‐amylase activity. This could be attributed to the dry weather during grain filling and harvesting time, which consequently affect the activity of α‐amylase (Erekul and Kohn 2006; Hamad et al. 2013). Thus, the seasonality and the environment, storage conditions of wheat grain (moisture and temperature), had a significant impact on the α‐amylase activity. Previous reports indicate that the FN is diverse among different genotypes that cultivated in various environment (Hamad et al. 2013) with the environmental impact on the FN being higher than the genotype and the genotype‐environment interaction (Erekul and Kohn 2006).

Table 6

Falling number and sedimentation value of 20 local wheat genotypes grown in three environments

Genotypes	Falling number (sec)				Sedimentation value (mL)
	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean	Wad Medani	Hudeiba	Dongola	Mean
G1	609.67r	508.00z	650.33n	589.33k	23.00k	22.00l	23.33k	22.78l
G2	633.33p	636.33op	974.67a	748.11a	25.33i	30.00d	24.00j	26.44f
G3	693.00gh	556.33wx	648.67n	632.67h	27.00g	29.00e	24.00j	26.67e
G4	715.00f	656.67mn	665.00kl	678.89c	24.00j	27.00g	26.00h	25.67g
G5	563.33w	524.00z	600.00rs	562.44m	23.00k	24.00j	24.00j	23.67k
G6	672.33jk	528.33z	808.67b	669.78d	19.00n	22.00l	24.00j	21.67m
G7	673.33jk	540.33y	730.33e	648.00f	25.00i	24.00j	40.33a	29.78b
G8	685.33hi	595.33st	795.00c	691.89b	25.00i	32.00b	27.00g	28.00c
G9	589.00tu	556.67wx	668.67kl	604.78j	32.00b	28.33f	33.00b	31.11a
G10	594.67st	508.33z	604.33rs	569.11l	28.00f	26.00h	29.00e	27.67d
G11	687.33hi	547.00xy	733.00e	655.78e	23.00k	24.00j	24.33j	23.78k
G12	604.00rs	555.67wx	653.33mn	604.33j	27.00g	24.00j	24.00j	25.00i
G13	607.00r	623.67q	654.67mn	628.44h	23.00k	23.00k	23.00k	23.00l
G14	668.33kl	512.00z	759.67d	646.67f	19.00n	23.00k	28.00f	23.33l
G15	636.00op	576.67v	681.67i	631.44h	25.00i	23.00k	25.00i	24.33j
G16	583.67uv	577.00v	701.33g	620.67i	20.00m	27.00g	29.00e	25.33h
G17	532.67z	583.00uv	594.33st	570.00l	28.00f	26.00h	29.33e	27.78d
G18	681.33ij	580.33uv	600.33rs	620.67i	27.00g	27.00g	29.00e	27.67d
G19	638.33op	596.67st	662.67lm	632.56h	26.00h	23.00k	28.67ef	25.89g
G20	626.67pq	646.00no	648.00n	640.22g	31.00c	28.00f	30.33cd	29.78b
Mean	634.72b	570.42c	691.73a	632.29	25.02c	25.62b	27.27a	25.97

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) from each other, according to Duncan's multiple range test.

Sedimentation values

The sedimentation value (SV) assessment provides information on the protein quantity and the quality of wheat flour (Makawi et al. 2013). It is thus used as a screening tool in wheat breeding programs as well as in milling and breadmaking processes. Our results revealed significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) in SV among environments and genotypes (Table 6). The SV of the genotypes in the three environments was in the range of 19.00–32.00 mL at Wad Medani, 22.00–32.00 mL at Hudeiba and 23.00–40.33 mL at Dongola. Similarly, Makawi et al. (2013) stated that the sedimentation value of the three Sudanese cultivars (Debaira, WadiElneel, and Elneelain) ranged between 19.6 and 37.4 mL. Additionally, Kaya and Akcura (2014) found the sedimentation value of 24–33 mL for Turkish wheat genotypes grown in different environments. The highest mean SV (40.33 mL) was obtained from G7 grown at Dongola while the lowest value (19.00 mL) was obtained from G6 and G14 grown at Wad Medani. Throughout the three environments, genotypes grown at Dongola showed the highest SV followed by Hudeiba and then Wad Medani. SV on the other hand revealed positive correlation with WG at Wad Medani (*P < 0.05, r = 0.55) and Hudeiba (*P < 0.05, r = 0.45), and with PC (***P < 0.001, r = 0.69) at Wad Medani, and FC (**P < 0.01, r = 0.59) at Hudeiba (Table 3). The positive association of SV with PC and WG is consistent with the fact that this value depends mainly on the wheat protein composition and gluten quality and is frequently correlate with these quality attributes (Ozturk and Aydin 2004; Tahir et al. 2006; Kaya and Akcura 2014). Unrelatedly with the growing area, G9 expressed the highest mean SV. As for other traits, the SV of the current study also depend mainly on the genotype, the growing environment (temperature and soil fertility) and their interaction. Similar observation on the effect of environment (temperature, rainfall, and soil quality) and agronomical treatments on the sedimentation value of many wheat genotypes has been previously reported (Erekul and Kohn 2006; Tahir et al. 2006; Kaya and Akcura 2014).

Biplot analysis

To profoundly determine the multivariate relationships between the grain end‐use quality traits and the growing environments of 20 wheat genotypes, biplot analysis was carried out by comparing the eigenvalues of PC1 and PC2 of principal component analysis (PCA) for both the genotypes and the quality traits (Fig. 1A–C). Regarding the interrelation between the traits and genotypes, the results of the first two PC axes (PC1, 39.89% and PC2, 23.37%) accounted for about 63.26% of the total variability reflecting the complexity of the variation between the plotted components (Fig. 1A). In the biplot, vectors of traits (variables) showing acute angle are positively correlated, whereas those formed obtuse or straight angles are negatively correlated, and those with right angle have no correlation. The distance between the raw (genotypes) is interpreted in terms of similarity. Regarding the traits, PC1 had the breadmaking quality parameters (DG, WG, PC, GI, and WHC) as the principal components, and FN and MC to a lesser extent while, PC2 had the SV, FC, and TW as the primary elements. The cosine of the angles between vectors indicated a high positive correlation between WHC, FN, and GI in the positive direction. These three traits were also positively correlated with FC in the positive direction and AC in the negative direction. High positive correlation was also observed between PC, WG, and DG and between SV and FC, and similarly between TW, TKW, and MC. In contrast, WHC, FN, and GI were negatively correlated with other breadmaking quality parameters mainly PC, WG, and DG and with grain physical characteristics such as TW, TKW, and MC. The SV was also negatively correlated with AC, TW, and TKW. Overall, the biplot analysis exhibits three groups of the traits based on their phenotypic associations, those include; gluten, starch, and milling quality characteristics (GI, WHC, FN, and AC) group, breadmaking quality attributes (SV, PC, WG, and DG) group, and grain physical and marketing characteristics (MC, TKW, and TW). These results shows some differences from that of the correlation analysis among pairs of characters as the biplot describes the interrelationships among all characters concurrently based on the overall contribution of the data (Yan and Fregeau‐Reid 2008).

Figure 1

Biplot based on principal component analysis for grain quality traits in 20 wheat genotypes (G1–G20) grown in three different environments (Wad Medani, Hudeiba, and Dongola). The biplots showed the interrelations between the quality traits (A) and the environments (B). Bidimensional clustering analysis is presenting the relationships between the genotypes (C). TKW, Thousand kernel weight (g); TW, Test weight (kg/hL); AC, Ash content; FC, Fat content; PC, Protein content; FN, Falling number; WHC, Water holding capacity; GI, Gluten index; SV, Sedimentation value; WG, Wet gluten; DG, Dry gluten.

Additionally, the biplot could indicate the interrelation among the genotypes as well as their stability and contribution toward an individual trait (Morris et al. 2004). In this regards, hierarchical clustering clearly distinguished three groups of genotypes according to their quality characteristics in all growing environments. The first group (right half of the graph, square symbol) is formed by the genotypes (G2, G8, G11, G14, G16, G18, and G19) with the highest values of WHC, GI, FN, and AC compared to other genotypes. Within this group, G14 had the highest values for these traits, followed by G6, G16, G12, G11, and G18. The second group (upper left, triangle symbol) consists of G3, G4, G7, G8, G9, G10, G15, G17, and G20. This group characterized by its high breadmaking quality parameters such as PC, WG, DG, and SV with G9 and G20 outscore all others genotypes for these traits. However, G9 and G20 are less stable for these quality traits compared to the other genotypes in this group as well as they are not contributed to the other quality traits such as FN, GI, and WHC. By contrast, G3, G4, G7, G8, and G10 are more stable and well‐associated with all end‐use quality attributes. The last group (lower left, circle symbol) contain G1, G5, G12, and G13, those characterized mainly by their high values of grain milling and marketing characteristics especially TW, TKW, and MC. Like that of traits, the results of biplot analysis display three distinguished groups of the genotypes based on their performance for one or more quality traits. Saint Pierre et al. (2008) stated that the grouping of genotypes in the biplot indicated that the genotypes of the quality groups show similar performance to numbers of the quality traits.

The biplot is an appropriate method for the analysis of the interaction between the traits and environments. Thus, it can identify the effects of the environment on one or more characters through a range of genotypes. In this study, a biplot was formed by using the average means of each trait for all genotypes growing in three environments to find the better wheat‐growing environment for the end‐use quality attributes (Fig. 1B). The results showed extremely high variability (100%), arising from the first two principal component PC1 (54.92%) and PC2 (45.28%), which indicating an excellent contribution of these two axes to the data presentation. Interestingly, the association between the traits shows some variations especially in MC, FC, TW, and FN compared to those presented in Figure 1A, suggesting the effect of the growing environment on grain end‐use quality traits. The high MC and GI characterize the genotypes grown at Wad Medani compared to the same genotypes when cultivated in the other two environments. Higher MC at Wad Medani could be attributed to the soil type in this environment which it could retain more water than that of the two other environments. The genotypes grown at Hudeiba had higher DG, TKW, and FC compared to the same genotypes grown at Wad Medani and Dongola. Interestingly, most of the end‐use quality parameters are great in the genotypes when cultivated at Dongola compared to the other two growing environments. Based on the end‐use quality traits, the environment in Dongola is most suitable followed by that of Hudeiba, whereas, the environment in Wad Medani is not suitable for wheat cultivation as the end‐use quality attributes were significantly reduced in this environment. The chief difference between the three environments is the temperature. Therefore, the inferior quality of the genotypes at Wad Medani could be attributed to the high temperature during the growing season.

To select the best genotype based on its quality performance throughout the growing environments, we generated a bidimensional cluster from the mean of the quality attributes of each genotype across all environments (Fig. 1C). The horizontal axis groups the genotypes based on phenotypic similarity concerning their quality traits. The differences in the color intensity indicated the values of each feature with the red color being the highest and green is the lowest. The two major branches of the horizontal cluster (traits) discrete the genotypes in the upper clusters, in which most of the green color (small values) appears for the attributes TW, TKW, MC, DG, WG, PC, and SV, from those in the lower clusters as they showed red color (high values) for the same attributes. With view exceptions, this results suggests that the upper branch includes genotypes (G14, G6, G16, G11, and G19) with poor grain filling and end‐use quality, whereas, the lower branch contains G9, G20, G10, G15, and G17 with real grain weight and end‐use quality. Despite their poor grain filling and moisture content, G3 and G4 have a good end‐use quality attributes with G3 outscore all other genotypes in this regard. Strikingly, this genotype (G3) also shows good stability for these end‐use quality traits (Fig. 1A). These results indicate the potentiality of G3 as an excellent and stable genotype for end‐use quality attributes under hot environments.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results of this study demonstrate that the genotypes, the environment, and their interaction have a high impact on the end‐use quality attributes of Sudanese wheat genotypes grown in three different environments. Throughout the three growing environments, Dongola is most appropriate for producing wheat grains with adequate end‐use quality characteristics while Wad Medani is the least in this regard due to its high temperature. Among wheat genotypes, G3 and G4 exhibit good performance and reasonable stability for most of the tested quality traits. These genotypes are potentially excellent candidates for cultivation in the hot environments of the Sudan for producing wheat grains with good breadmaking quality. In addition, the crossing of these genotypes with high yield and milling quality genotypes will improve the adaptability, productivity, quality, and marketability of Sudanese wheat grains.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare to have no conflict of interest.