Current Management of the Complications of Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension: Variceal Hemorrhage, Ascites, and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis.

Cirrhosis is not a single entity but represents a disease progression across different prognostic stages, with the compensated and decompensated stages being the most important. Variceal hemorrhage (VH) and ascites are complications of cirrhosis that denote the presence of a decompensated stage. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a common bacterial infection unique to patients with cirrhosis that can precipitate the development of recurrent VH and hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), complications that denote the presence of a 'further decompensated' stage of cirrhosis. Main current issues in the management of VH include identification of different prognostic stages that allow for individualized patient care. Management of VH cannot be performed in an isolated manner, and the presence of other complications of cirrhosis (ascites, encephalopathy) should be taken into account both in the management and in the design of clinical trials. Because management of ascites per se has not resulted in significant changes in mortality, main management issues consist of preventing further decompensating events by preventing factors that will lead to worsening vasodilatation and hemodynamic status (infections, vasodilators), preventing volume depletion (overdiuresis, GI hemorrhage) and preventing structural kidney injury (nephrotoxins). Prophylaxis of bacterial infections such as SBP currently consists of the administration of antibiotics. By preventing infections, there is evidence that recurrent VH and HRS can also be prevented. However, response to recommended empirical antibiotics in patients with suspected infection, such as SBP, is currently significantly lower than in the past because of an increase in infections secondary to multidrug resistant (MDR) organisms. One of the main predictors of the development of MDR organisms is antibiotic prophylaxis and unnecessary and prolonged use of antibiotics in hospital. Therefore, appropriate antibiotics should be used in patients with a high suspicion of infection, and antibiotic prophylaxis should be restricted to patients with the highest risk of infection.