Geographic differentiation of domesticated einkorn wheat and possible Neolithic migration routes.

To analyse the spread of domesticated einkorn into Europe, 136 landraces, 9 wild einkorns and 3 Triticum urartu were fingerprinted by the diversity array technology sequence (DArT-seq) marker technology. The obtained 3455 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers confirmed earlier results about the separation of wild and domesticated einkorn from T. urartu and about the pinpointing of the domesticated forms to the Karacadağ Mountains (Turkey). Further analyses identified two major domesticated landrace einkorn groups, one relating to the Prealpine region and the other to the Maghreb/Iberian region. The previously published four geographical provenance groups were mostly identified in our results. The earlier reported unique position of the Maghreb/Iberia einkorns cannot be confirmed, as the three landrace clusters we identified with STRUCTURE also occur in the remaining einkorn, although at different frequencies. The results are discussed with respect to the spreading of domesticated einkorn into Western Europe and two possible Neolithic migration routes are indicated.