Pediatric cardiovascular grafts: historical perspective and future directions.

Tissue-engineered cardiovascular patches, cardiac valves, and great vessels are emerging solutions for the surgical treatment of congenital cardiovascular abnormalities due to their potential for adapting with the growing child. The ideal pediatric cardiovascular patch/graft is non-thrombogenic, phenotypically compatible, and matches the compliance and mechanical strength of the native tissue, both initially and throughout growth. Bottom-up tissue engineering approaches, in which three-dimensional tissue is built layer-by-layer from scaffold-less cell sheets in vitro, offer an exciting potential solution. Cell source variability, sheet patterning, and scaffold-less fabrication are promising advantages offered by this approach. Here we review the latest developments and next steps in bottom-up tissue engineering targeted at meeting the necessary design criteria for successful pediatric cardiac tissue-engineered grafts.