Cryotechniques in macromolecular research (a comparative study).

There is no single method which would provide an unambiguous image of all types of biological macromolecules. The choice of method depends largely on the size and properties of the macromolecule. Obviously small molecules are best visualized by negative staining, the problems appear with negative staining of larger structures. Here, the uncertainty about which part of the complex is actually stained (top or bottom) makes correct interpretation difficult. Shadowing techniques have the advantage of both visualizing the surface and also delineating the whole macromolecule, but suffer from lower resolution due to the graininess of the metal. However, they are superior to negative staining for the visualization of thin linear macromolecules. The next series of problems includes the interaction of macromolecules with supporting films, glass coverslips or mica, which can be hydrophobic, hydrophilic or charged and these properties can influence the orientation of the molecules. Surface tension forces during air-drying must also be considered. We have used a variety of preparative techniques in our studies of biological macromolecules: (a) negative staining; (b) air-drying from ethanol; (c) glycerol-spraying; (d) adsorption freeze-drying; (e) monolayer freeze-etching. These methods have been tested on small viruses, water soluble proteins (ribosomes, F-actin, microtubules) and transmembrane proteins requiring the presence of detergents (sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase, fibronectin receptor). We find that freeze-drying is the most reliable and easy method for molecules that withstand distilled water; freeze-etching can be successfully applied to transmembrane proteins (even in the presence of detergents or salt); the glycerol-spray technique provides an excellent alternative to the cryotechniques in particular for studies of single linear molecules.