The joint effects of sulfonamides and quorum sensing inhibitors on Vibrio fischeri: Differences between the acute and chronic mixed toxicity mechanisms.

Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs) are considered to be promising antibiotic alternatives and will be increasingly exposed to the environment together with antibiotics after their research and development process; it is therefore necessary to study the joint effects of QSIs and antibiotics. In this study, single and mixed toxicity of sulfonamide (SAs) and QSIs under acute and chronic conditions and their corresponding toxicity mechanisms were investigated. The results indicated that the acute joint effect was extremely complex, ranging from an antagonistic to synergistic response, while the chronic joint effect was primarily an antagonistic response. Using a molecular docking and regression model, we found that the acute joint effect could be determined by the hydrion's, ability to be oxidized, as well as the binding energy. The chronic joint effect was primarily an antagonistic response, which was due to the QSI competing against AHL for luxR generated by SAs, leading to negative effects of the QSI-luxR complexes on luxI. This phenomenon eventually weakened the stimulatory effect caused by SAs. Finally, the main differences between acute and chronic mixtures were analyzed: (1) The target protein was different between acute and chronic toxicity mixtures, and (2) effective concentration in acute and chronic toxicity mixtures was also different. These deep insights into mixed toxicity mechanisms will play an important role in the study of antibiotic resistance genes in response to antibiotic replacements.