Doping silicon nanocrystals and quantum dots.

The ability to incorporate a dopant element into silicon nanocrystals (NC) and quantum dots (QD) is one of the key technical challenges for the use of these materials in a number of optoelectronic applications. Unlike doping of traditional bulk semiconductor materials, the location of the doping element can be either within the crystal lattice (c-doping), on the surface (s-doping) or within the surrounding matrix (m-doping). A review of the various synthetic strategies for doping silicon NCs and QDs is presented, concentrating on the efficacy of the synthetic routes, both in situ and post synthesis, with regard to the structural location of the dopant and the doping level. Methods that have been applied to the characterization of doped NCs and QDs are summarized with regard to the information that is obtained, in particular to provide researchers with a guide to the suitable techniques for determining dopant concentration and location, as well as electronic and photonic effectiveness of the dopant.