Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease with Oral Contraceptives and Menopausal Hormone Therapy: Current Evidence and Future Directions.

Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), collectively known as inflammatory bowel diseases, are archetypical inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract with rising incidence worldwide. Although the role of genetic factors in disease development has been highlighted by genome-wide association studies, environmental risk factors likely play a pivotal role in development of CD and UC. Prior observational studies have suggested a link between exogenous hormone use and risk of CD and UC. Specifically, studies have shown an association between oral contraceptive use and risk of CD and menopausal hormone therapy and risk of UC. Although the exact mechanism of these associations is largely unknown, a number of hypotheses have been proposed. First, oral estrogen has been shown to modify intestinal permeability, a critical step in the pathophysiology of inflammatory bowel disease. Second, exogenous hormone use through its effect on endogenous levels of hormones may enhance the development of Th1- and Th2-mediated inflammatory diseases. Lastly, recent data have linked modification in the gut microbiome to endogenous levels of androgens, which are also known to be altered with exogenous hormone use and influence the development of autoimmune diseases. This supports the intriguing hypothesis that the gut microbiome lies at the crossroads of pathways linking exogenous hormone use with innate and adaptive immunity. Future studies should therefore focus on bridging these epidemiologic findings to disease pathogenesis through comprehensive understanding of the complex interaction between exogenous hormone use, sex steroid biomarkers, genetic risk loci, and alterations in the intestinal microbial environment in the etiology of CD and UC.