Floral trait evolution associated with shifts between insect and wind pollination in the dioecious genus Leucadendron (Proteaceae).

Transitions between animal and wind pollination have occurred in many lineages and have been linked to various floral modifications, but these have seldom been assessed in a phylogenetic framework. In the dioecious genus Leucadendron (Proteaceae), transitions from insect to wind pollination have occurred at least four times. Using analyses that controlled for relatedness among Leucadendron species, we investigated how these transitions shaped the evolution of floral structural and signaling traits, including the degree of sexual dimorphism in these traits. Pollen grains of wind-pollinated species were found to be smaller, more numerous, and dispersed more efficiently in wind than were those of insect-pollinated species. Wind-pollinated species also exhibited a reduction in spectral contrast between showy subtending leaves and background foliage, reduced volatile emissions, and a greater degree of sexual dimorphism in color and scent. Uniovulate flowers and inflorescence condensation are conserved ancestral features in Leucadendron and likely served as exaptations in shifts to wind pollination. These results offer insights into the key modifications of male and female floral traits involved in transitions between insect and wind pollination.