BACKGROUND/AIMS: Prior studies demonstrated that pro-inflammatory cytokines (PICs) including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α contribute to regulation of epilepsy-associated pathophysiological processes in the specific brain regions, namely the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. Moreover, GABA transporter type 1 and 3 (GAT-1 and GAT-3) modulating extracellular GABA levels are engaged in the role played by PICs in epileptogenesis. Note that brain ischemic injury also elevates cerebral PICs. Thus, in this report we examined the effects of nefiracetam (NEF), a pyrrolidone derivative, on the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, and expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala using a rat model of post-ischemic nonconvulsive seizure (NCS). METHODS: NCS was evoked by the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). ELISA and Western Blot analysis were employed to determine the levels of PICs and GAT-1/GAT-3, respectively. RESULTS: MCAO significantly increased IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala as compared with sham control animals (P<0.05 vs. control rats). Also, in these specific brain regions expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 was amplified; and the levels of GABA were decreased in rats following MCAO (P<0.05 vs. control rats). Systemic administration of NEF significantly attenuated the elevated PICs, amplified GAT-1 and GAT-3 as well as impaired GABA. NEF also attenuated the number of NCS events following MCAO. CONCLUSION: our data demonstrate that NEF improves post-ischemia evoked-NCS by altering PICs, GABA transporters thereby alleviating GABA in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. This support a role for PICs and GABA in engagement of the adaptive responses associated with epileptic activity, but also suggests that NEF has anti-epileptic effects via PICs-GABA mechanisms, having pharmacological implications to target the specific PICs for neuronal dysfunction and vulnerability related to post-ischemic seizures and cognitive impairment.
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Prior studies demonstrated that pro-inflammatory cytokines (PICs) including IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α contribute to regulation of epilepsy-associated pathophysiological processes in the specific brain regions, namely the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. Moreover, GABA transporter type 1 and 3 (GAT-1 and GAT-3) modulating extracellular GABA levels are engaged in the role played by PICs in epileptogenesis. Note that brain ischemic injury also elevates cerebral PICs. Thus, in this report we examined the effects of nefiracetam (NEF), a pyrrolidone derivative, on the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, and expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala using a rat model of post-ischemic nonconvulsive seizure (NCS). METHODS: NCS was evoked by the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). ELISA and Western Blot analysis were employed to determine the levels of PICs and GAT-1/GAT-3, respectively. RESULTS:MCAO significantly increased IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala as compared with sham control animals (P<0.05 vs. control rats). Also, in these specific brain regions expression of GAT-1 and GAT-3 was amplified; and the levels of GABA were decreased in rats following MCAO (P<0.05 vs. control rats). Systemic administration of NEF significantly attenuated the elevated PICs, amplified GAT-1 and GAT-3 as well as impaired GABA. NEF also attenuated the number of NCS events following MCAO. CONCLUSION: our data demonstrate that NEF improves post-ischemia evoked-NCS by altering PICs, GABA transporters thereby alleviating GABA in the parietal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. This support a role for PICs and GABA in engagement of the adaptive responses associated with epileptic activity, but also suggests that NEF has anti-epileptic effects via PICs-GABA mechanisms, having pharmacological implications to target the specific PICs for neuronal dysfunction and vulnerability related to post-ischemic seizures and cognitive impairment.