Detection of renal diseases in humans: developing markers and methods.

This review covers the tests currently available or being developed for early detection of renal damage and dysfunction induced by exogenous chemicals. Relevant markers are discussed with regard to their application and their level of validation. Some of these tests are being used routinely within health surveillance programmes of individuals exposed to known nephrotoxic agents. More sensitive tests can be applied in epidemiological surveillance programmes aimed at the identification and removal of relevant risk factors. The earliest changes might have little clinical significance, although new perspectives may be opened by various markers and approaches that are being developed.