Forelimb kinematics during hopping and landing in toads.

Coordinated landing in a variety of animals involves the re-positioning of limbs prior to impact to safely decelerate the body. However, limb kinematics strategies for landing vary considerably among species. For example, human legs are increasingly flexed before impact as drop height increases, while turkeys increasingly extend their legs before impact with increasing drop height. In anurans, landing typically involves the use of the forelimbs to decelerate the body after impact. Few detailed, quantitative descriptions of anuran forelimb kinematics during jumping exist and it is not known whether they prepare for larger landing forces by changing forelimb kinematics. In this study, we used high-speed video of 51 hops from five cane toads (Bufo marinus) to test the hypothesis that forelimb kinematics change predictably with distance. We measured excursions of the elbow (flexion/extension) and humerus (protraction/retraction and elevation/depression) throughout every hop. The results indicate that elbow and humeral excursions leading up to impact increase significantly with hop length, but do so without any change in the rate of movement. Instead, because the animal is in the air longer during longer hops, near-constant velocity movements lead to the larger excursions. These larger excursions in elbow extension result in animals hitting the ground with more extended forelimbs in longer hops, which in turn allows animals to decelerate over a greater distance.