Waleska K Martins1, Érico T Costa2, Mário C Cruz3, Beatriz S Stolf3, Ronei Miotto4, Rodrigo M Cordeiro4, Maurício S Baptista1. 1. Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil. 2. Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research (LICR) at Centro de Oncologia Molecular, Hospital Sírio Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil. 3. Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil. 4. Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, UF-ABC, Brazil.
Abstract
The role of autophagy in cell death is still controversial and a lot of debate has concerned the transition from its pro-survival to its pro-death roles. The similar structure of the triterpenoids Betulinic (BA) and Oleanolic (OA) acids allowed us to prove that this transition involves parallel damage in mitochondria and lysosome. After treating immortalized human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT) with either BA or OA, we evaluated cell viability, proliferation and mechanism of cell death, function and morphology of mitochondria and lysosomes, and the status of the autophagy flux. We also quantified the interactions of BA and OA with membrane mimics, both in-vitro and in-silico. Essentially, OA caused mitochondrial damage that relied on autophagy to rescue cellular homeostasis, which failed upon lysosomal inhibition by Chloroquine or Bafilomycin-A1. BA caused parallel damage on mitochondria and lysosome, turning autophagy into a destructive process. The higher cytotoxicity of BA correlated with its stronger efficiency in damaging membrane mimics. Based on these findings, we underlined the concept that autophagy will turn into a destructive outcome when there is parallel damage in mitochondrial and lysosomal membranes. We trust that this concept will help the development of new drugs against aggressive cancers.
The role of autophagy in cell death is still controversial and a lot of debate has concerned the transition from its pro-survival to its pro-death roles. The similar structure of the triterpenoidsBetulinic (BA) and Oleanolic (OA) acids allowed us to prove that this transition involves parallel damage in mitochondria and lysosome. After treating immortalized human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT) with either BA or OA, we evaluated cell viability, proliferation and mechanism of cell death, function and morphology of mitochondria and lysosomes, and the status of the autophagy flux. We also quantified the interactions of BA and OA with membrane mimics, both in-vitro and in-silico. Essentially, OA caused mitochondrial damage that relied on autophagy to rescue cellular homeostasis, which failed upon lysosomal inhibition by Chloroquine or Bafilomycin-A1. BA caused parallel damage on mitochondria and lysosome, turning autophagy into a destructive process. The higher cytotoxicity of BA correlated with its stronger efficiency in damaging membrane mimics. Based on these findings, we underlined the concept that autophagy will turn into a destructive outcome when there is parallel damage in mitochondrial and lysosomal membranes. We trust that this concept will help the development of new drugs against aggressive cancers.
Macroautophagy, or simply autophagy, is a lysosome-dependent degradation pathway that promotes cell homeostasis in response to several types of stresses1. After decades of scientific discoveries2 the general agreement is that the protective role of autophagy may be converted into a destructive one, i.e., autophagy associates with cell death when there is failure in either the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes or in the digestion of autolysosomes3. However, the understanding of this process at the molecular level needs a profound analysis of the competition between the activation and inhibition pathways of autophagy. Consequently, the impact of activating autophagy with damaged mitochondria (mitophagy) on the condition of autophagy impairment by lysosome damage is a noteworthy subject to explore. If mitophagy fails, the decrease in removal of injured mitochondria lead to accumulation of enlarged mitochondria, cell aging, genomic instability and senescence4567.In here, we report a comparative study of the biological effects of two chemical isomers, the pentacyclictriterpenoidsBetulinic (BA) and Oleanolic (OA) acids, in a cellular model of immortalized human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT)8, in which homeostasis strictly depends on autophagy pathway9. Consequently, in HaCaT it is possible to detect endogenous LC3 lipidated form (LC3-II)10, avoiding artifacts that may occur when employing transfection and transgenesis strategies11.As expected, BA and OA are almost identical in terms of their physicochemical properties (Table 1), however they significantly differ in cytotoxicity, an effect that has not yet been properly explained1213. BA is highly toxic to cells121314, which the literature attributes mainly to activation of apoptosis by mitochondrial damage1516171819.
Table 1
Physicochemical properties of triterpenoids BA and OA.
Autophagy has been activated upon BA treatment in an attempt to retard mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in tumors cells18. Once suppressed, autophagy fails to guarantee cell recovery, and a significant increase in apoptosis BA-modulated was shown to take place in human multiple myeloma cells20. However, it is still unknown how BA interplays the mitochondrial-lysosomal axis of autophagic cellular rescue. Gonzalez et al. also reported that BA derivative B10 is capable of inducing cell death mainly by inhibition of the autophagic flux through the release of cathepsins (B and Z) in the cytosol21. Although both studies2021 observed undigested autophagosomes, the connection between lysosomal membrane impairment and autophagy effectiveness was not addressed.OA is widely used as an anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic and antioxidant agent1322. At large concentrations, OA also induces mitochondrial damage leading to apoptotic cell death23. However, there are no reports of autophagy induction or cell death with autophagy upon OA treatment.Motivated by the lack of mechanistic explanation and by contradictory data in the literature concerning the BA mechanism of cell death182021, we investigated the role of autophagy on the underlying biological processes triggered by BA and OA. By comparing the responses of BA with OA, we were able to reveal details of the induction and inhibition of the autophagic process and their association with cell death and damage in mimetic membranes.
Results
The main experimental procedure in this work consisted in incubating HaCaT with BA, OA and other chemicals. We reported the results referring to the time at which the experiment was performed, after the incubation with chemicals. The label T1 was used for experiments performed just after the 24-hour incubation period. T2 and T3 referred to experiments performed 24 and 48 hours after T1. Experiments performed at other temporal schemes will be clearly identified throughout the text.
BA is more cytotoxic than OA in HaCaT
BA, which was much more damaging to HaCaT than OA (Fig. 1a), had its cytotoxic effects associated with lysosomotropic vacuolization as revealed in live microscopy (Fig. 1b). Only after BA (and not after OA) we observed a conspicuous vacuolization in HaCaT at T1, which seems to end up in cell death - note Propidium Iodide (PI) incorporation in some BA-treated cells. Interestingly, the vacuolization observed in BA-treated cells (Fig. 1b) perceived even at T2, as revealed in flow cytofluorometric analysis (Fig. 1c). BA treated cells showed an accumulation of acidic vacuoles (Fig. 1c) 2.5 times larger than in control and in OA treated cells; and 1.5 times larger than in cells treated with Temsirolimus (TEM)10, which inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and consequently activates autophagy. Live microscopy following staining with Neutral Red (NR) also revealed at T2 a remarkable lysosomotropic vacuolization in BA-treated cells (and not in cells treated with OA) (Fig. 1d-i).
Figure 1
Analysis of biological effects of BA and OA.
(a) Survival rates at T3 as a function of dose (10–30 μM). (b) At T1 with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM), HaCaT keratinocytes were stained with the dyes Acridine Orange (AO) and Propidium Iodide (PI), and evaluated under microscope. Arrows indicated nuclear PI positive dead cells with acidic vacuoles accumulation. (c) Alternatively, at T2 with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM) or TEM (15 μM) the acidic vacuoles AO-stained were quantified by FACS. (d) At T2 HaCaT keratinocytes treated with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) following staining with Neutral Red (30 μg/mL) were evaluated under microscope (i). At indicative times, the cell survival was assayed by MTT and linearly correlated to lysosomal content measured in terms of autophagy arbitrary units – AAU (ii). (e) At T3 with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) the cell survival of HaCaT and HeLa treated cells was assayed by MTT reduction following AAU calculation. (f) At T1 and T2, HaCaT keratinocytes treated with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) following FACS were gated according the Side Scatter (SSC) and Forward Scatter (FSC) parameters (i). After gating, bars showed the ponderation of cell size (FSC) and granularity (SSC) compared to control and represented as arbitrary units (ii). (g) After the same experimental condition (f), a pseudo-color scatter-plots showed gating of HaCaT treated cells according to two parameters (mitochondrial mass and cell death), following staining with MitoTracker green FM and PI dye inclusion (i). Regarding these parameters, subpopulations of treated-cells were identified, weigthed by control and represented as arbitrary units (ii). All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error. Multiple statistical comparisons were calculated by ANOVA test, and the p-value for each pairwise group was determined by Dunnett’s T3 (high variance between groups) or Bonferroni (low variance between groups) post-hoc test. The analysis of correlation was done using Pearson’s coefficient (r). Significance difference (p < 0.05) was depicted by asterisk.
In an attempt to further elucidate the impact of BA and OA treatment on cellular homeostasis, we analyzed the correlation between the lysosomotropic vacuolization and cell viability according to a recent strategy of quantifying autophagy by arbitrary units (AAU, based on weighting NR-uptake by the average of cell survival)10. Note that in BA-treated cells there is a clear correlation between the decrease in cell viability and the increase in AAU. This correlation was observed neither in control nor in OA-treated cells (Fig. 1d-ii). The same toxic effects of BA on HaCaT were also observed in HeLa cells. Note that BA caused a considerable increase in cell death (30%) with increase in lysosomal content and consequently in AAU (30%) (Fig. 1e). OA did not induce toxicity in HeLa cells.We also evaluated cell vacuolization triggered by BA by using the FSC and SSC parameters, which allow the identification of subsets of cells based on size and internal complexity (Fig. 1f). Note the increase in the subset of HaCaT with cell enlargement and granularity (upper right quadrant) at both T1 and T2 (Fig. 1f-ii). Unlike control and OA, under BA these parameters showed an increase of 2.0 and 1.3-fold at T1 and T2, respectively (Fig. 1f-ii). These results indicated a clear propensity for BA-treated cells to die in parallel with the accumulation of acidic vacuoles.Next, we investigated the status of mitochondria after triterpenoid treatment. By gating mitochondria mass (MTG) as a function of cell death (PI incorporation), we observed (upper left quadrant at T2) significant mitochondrial accumulation in a subset of BA surviving cells (40.9%) in comparison to control (16.8%) and OA (26.3%) (Fig. 1g-i). Unlike OA, BA dead cells also showed mitochondrial accumulation (mean of 5.6-fold) with remarkable increase in cell granularity of 11.0 and 3.3-fold at T1 and T2, respectively (Fig. 1g-ii). The accumulation of mitochondria at T2 in BA-treated cells (both alive and dead), suggests the possible involvement of mitochondria on this scenario of cell death.
Although OA was less harmful to HaCaT than BA (Fig. 1a), both significantly decreased the mitochondrial transmembrane inner potential (ΔΨm), as indicated by the incorporation of Rh123 and quantification of its fluorescence. Just 3 hours after the start of the treatment, BA and OA induced a significant decrease in Rh123 fluorescence of 46% and 16%, respectively p < 0.001 (Fig. 2a-i). Under the same experimental conditions, the mitochondrial uncoupling agent carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP)24 decreased ΔΨm by 18%, p = 0.003 (Fig. 2a-i). Despite the fact that both triterpenoids showed a significant decrease in Rh123 fluorescence, the toxic mitochondrial effects of BA was larger and better correlated with time (r = −0.7), than those induce by OA (r = −0.5) (Fig. 2a-ii).
Figure 2
Analysis of mitochondrial membrane impairment in HaCaT.
Keratinocytes were treated with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM), or CCCP (2 μM). (a) After 3 hours, the decrease in mitochondrial inner transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) was measured in terms of Rh123 fluorescence intensity relative to control (100%) (i). The decrease in Rh123 fluorescence intensity was evaluated as a function of time (ii). (b) Following staining for lysosomes with LTG (green) and mitochondria with MTR (red), cells were treated for 6 hours. Line scans (at bottom) indicated association between lysosome and mitochondria. This relationship represented the lines drawn in the images. (c) Keratinocytes were treated with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM). Following staining of lysosome with LTR (red), cells were immunostained for LC3-II (blue) and for the mitochondrial marker COXIV (green) at T1 (i). Bars showed the average of fluorescence intensity from multiple images (ii). (d) Scatter-plots of HaCaT following immunostaining for LC3-II (FL1) and COXIV (FL3) at T1 (i). Mitochondria mas (COXIV) compared to control and represented as arbitrary units (ii). (e) Scatter-plots at T1 showing LC3-II and COXIV in treated cells in presence or absence of BAF (20 ηM) added at the last two hours of the treatment. Keratinocytes treated with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM), or CCCP (2 μM) for 6 hours, following (f) citrate synthase (CS) activity represented as arbitrary units after ponderation to control; and (g) immunostaining for COXIV (green) and Parkin (red). At bottom, plot profile (Parkin/COXIV) of lines drawn in the images. T1 = after treatment for 24 hours; T2 = at 24 hours after T1; T3 = at 48 hours after T1. All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error. Multiple statistical comparisons were calculated by ANOVA test, and the P value for each pairwise group was determined by Dunnett’s T3 (high variance between groups) or Bonferroni (low variance between groups) post-hoc test. The analysis of correlation was done using Pearson’s coefficient (r). Significance difference (p < 0.05) was depicted by asterisk.
By double staining HaCaT with MTR (a probe sensitive for ΔΨm) and LTG (lysosomotropic dye) after 6 hours of treatment, we were able to reproduce the loss of ΔΨm by all three drugs (BA, OA and CCCP). Note the decrease in MTR staining for BA, OA and CCCP compared with the control and the lysosome accumulation, especially in BA-treated cells (Fig. 2b). It is interesting that the cellular regions of BA-treated cells showing lysosome accumulation are the same that showed mitochondria ΔΨm loss (line scans in Fig. 2b). Merged images also revealed that lysosomes accumulated selectively on regions that had depolarized mitochondria, i.e., with less MTR fluorescence (Fig. 2b).The degree of mitochondria sequestration by autophagosomes was analyzed by performing a triple staining protocol (COXIV, LTR, LC3-II) at T1. Compared with control, BA and OA-treated cells displayed an increase and decrease, respectively, in COXIV labeling (Fig. 2c). Both BA and OA-treated cells showed an increased level of LTR loaded lysosomes, which overlapped with mitochondria (COXIV) (Fig. 2c-i). Note also that the endogenous autophagosome marker LC3-II increased in both BA and OA-treated cells, indicating an activation of autophagy compared to control. It is interesting that in the case of OA autophagy activation caused a decrease in mitochondrial mass, suggesting efficient removal of damaged mitochondria, while in the case of BA there was significant accumulation of mitochondria (p = 0.004), suggesting failure in their autophagic removal (Fig. 2c-ii). Flow cytofluorometry analysis also supported the LC3-II lipidation upon treatment with BA parallel to mitochondrial mass accumulation (Fig. 2d-i). The appearance of a subpopulation of BA-treated cells (21.9%) presenting increase in both LC3-II and COXIV pointed to the significant accumulation of mitochondria inside autophagosomes (upper right quadrant) (Fig. 2d-ii). This subset of HaCaT was also observed for OA-treated cells, but with a moderate frequency (8.9%) when compared to the basal levels of the control (1.5%). On the other hand, a subset of OA-treated cells (21.8%) had an increase in LC3-II that was not correlated to the increase in mitochondrial mass as observed before in microscopy (Fig. 2c). Under BA the accumulation of mitochondria was so large that there was a significant population of cells (22.9%) with increased mitochondrial content without increase in LC3-II staining (Fig. 2d-i). We further analyzed HaCaT that had the autophagic flux inhibited by BAF (Fig. 2e). After gating mitochondria (COXIV) as function of LC3-II, cytofluorometric analysis revealed a subset of BA-treated cells (upper right quadrant) with high correlation between LC3-II and mitochondrial mass (80.1%) compared to control (26.3%) (Fig. 2e). Regarding inhibition of autophagy by BAF treatment, we did not observe significant change in this correlation (72.6%), which suggested that BAF per se was not capable of inhibiting autophagic removal of mitochondria.In order to monitor the different steps of autophagic clearance in response to damaged mitochondria, we treated HaCaT with triterpenoids or CCCP and measured the activity of the enzyme citrate synthase (CS), which is located inside the mitochondrial matrix25. Within 6 hours of CCCP addition, a period of time sufficient for recruitment of lysosomes to depolarized mitochondria (Fig. 2b), we observed a significant decrease of citrate synthase (CS) activity (p = 0.024) (Fig. 2f), indicating effective mitophagy24. Using the same protocol the decrease in CS activity by OA (24%) was similar to that of CCCP, suggesting therefore effective mitophagy. Interestingly, HaCaT under BA showed almost no change in CS activity (10%) even after the impressive reduction of ΔΨm (2.5-fold) (Fig. 2a), indicating again that mitochondria clearance was not effective in this case.Next, we evaluated the selective recruitment of the ubiquitin-ligase Parkin to damaged mitochondria, which is one of the initial steps of mitophagy activation2526. Note that Parkin is dispersed in the cytosol of control cells and tend to accumulate in specific micro-environments in cells treated with BA, OA and CCCP (Fig. 2g). Note also that Parkin staining co-localized with COXIV in cells treated with BA, OA and CCCP but not in the control (line scans). Like CCCP, both triterpenoids induced the translocation of Parkin to depolarized mitochondria, indicating mitophagy activation. However, in the case of BA mitophagy seemed to be activated but ended up in mitochondrial accumulation instead of clearance, suggesting interruption of the autophagic flux. This result was compatible with the data presented in Fig. 2c, as well as with recent reports concerned with the biological effects of BA20.
Unlike OA, BA compromises the autophagic flux
To evaluate further the autophagic flux inhibition by BA, we quantified LC3 lipidation27. The increase in lipidated LC3-II was found on western blots and by FACS even at 6 hours of treatment with BA (Fig. 3a,b). Note that for both control and OA-treated cells there was accumulation of the LC3-II form under inhibition of autophagic flux by BAF, which specifically inhibits the lysosomal proton pump (vacuolar H+ ATPase)28 (Fig. 3a-i). On the other hand, in the case of BA-treated cells the LC3-II form was significantly abundant (p = 0.040) regardless of autophagy inhibition by BAF (Fig. 3a-ii). Moreover, as observed by FACS, in BA-treated cells there was a significant accumulation of the LC3-II form (p < 0.001) in a time-dependent manner (Fig. 3b), indicating that BA inhibits the autophagic flux.
Figure 3
Consequences of autophagic flux inhibition.
(a) LC3 lipidation (LC3-II form) after 6 hours of treatment with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) (i). Bars indicated the mean of relative amount of LC3-II (%) normalized by the baseline expression of GAPDH (ii). (b) Keratinocytes treated with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) were immunostained with LC3-II at indicated times (6 or 24 hours). Fold change of LC3-II compared to control were represented as arbitrary units. (c) At T1 following staining of lysosomes (LTR), cells treated with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM) or TEM (15 μM) were immunostained for LC3-II (blue) and for lysosomal marker LAMP2A (green). At bottom, plot profile (LC3-II/lysosome/LAMP2A) of lines drawn in the images. (d) At T1 HaCaT treated with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) in presence or absence of BAF (2 ηM). Following staining of lysosomes with LTR (red), cells were immunostained for LC3-II (blue) and for COXIV (green). Fluorescence plot profiles represented line scans of LTR-loaded lysosomes and LC3-II/COXIV. (e) At T1 lysosomal enzymes were extracted from subcellular fraction (lysosomes), following fluorescence assays for detection of cathepsins L (CTSL) and B (CTSB) activities. (f) CTSB activity from lysosomal fraction as a function of time. (g) At T2 HaCaT treated with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) following lysosomal staining with LTR (red) and immunostaining for total CTSB (green). Plot profile (CTSB/lysosome) of lines drawn in the images (i) and surface plots (ii). At T2 with DMSO (control) and BA (20 μM) total CTSB (ρg/mL) was assayed by ELISA (iii). T1 = after treatment for 24 hours; T2 = 24 hours after T1; T3 = 48 hours after T1. All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error. Multiple statistical comparisons were calculated by ANOVA test, and the p-value for each pairwise group was determined by Dunnett’s T3 (high variance between groups) or Bonferroni (low variance between groups) post-hoc test. Significance difference (p < 0.05) was depicted by asterisk.
To test if BA compromised autophagosome fusion with lysosomes, we evaluated the co-localization between LC3-II, LAMP2A and lysosomes stained by LTR (Fig. 3c). After treatment with BA, OA and TEM for 6 hours, we observed an increase in LAMP2A expression mainly in BA-treated cells. As expected, parallel to the increase in endogenous LC3-II there was an enhancement of LTR loaded lysosomes (surface plots), which showed selective co-localization with LAMP2A (traced line). Plot profile analysis of LC3-II/LAMP2A and lysosomes indicated the appropriate formation of autolysosomes upon BA (Fig. 3c, line scans). Under OA there was a strong reduction in the level of COXIV and almost no co-localization with LTR and LC3-II, indicating that there was no accumulation of autolysosomes and suggesting again an effective removal of mitochondria, which is endorsed by lysosomal and LC3-II overlapping (lined area, Supplementary Figure S1)29. Under OA in the presence of BAF we saw a strong reduction in LTR staining and its loss of co-localization with LC3-II (Fig. 3d, line scans), showing that effective autophagy failed upon BAF treatment (Supplementary Figure S1). Under this experimental condition, OA-treated cells showed a remarkable increase in mitochondrial mass (p = 0.001), which is similar to that caused by BA without BAF (Supplementary Figure S1, surface and box-plots).To further characterize the dysfunctional autophagy that seems to end up in cell death upon BA treatment, we quantified the activity of lysosomal fraction of cathepsins B and L (CTSB and CTSL, respectively). At T1, there was a significant increase in CTSB and CTSL for both BA and OA (Fig. 3e). In BA-treated cells, we observed a remarkable increase in CTSB and CTSL activities of 13 and 7-fold compared to control, respectively. Although at lower level, OA enhanced CTSB and CTSL activities to 4 and 3-fold compared to control, respectively (Fig. 3e). This enhanced activity of CTSB in OA-treated cells decreased with time, while under BA the increase was sustained regardless of time (Fig. 3f). The increase of CTSB co-localized with lysosomes at T2 was clearly observed after the treatment with BA and not with OA (Fig. 3g-i). Note that the increase in CTSB at the lysosomal fraction (Fig. 3g-ii) was so large that it could even be detected by ELISA, p = 0.023 (Fig. 3g-iii). These findings support a scenario of BA mediating lysosome and autophagolysosome accumulation, which are, however, non-functional.
BA destabilizes lysosomes
Micrograph analysis of live cells revealed cytoplasmic staining with the lysosomotropic LTG for all experimental conditions – control, BA, OA and TEM (Fig. 4a). Six hours after treatment with BA (but not with TEM or OA) cells revealed accumulation of lysosomes displaying higher LTG-loads (Fig. 4a, surface plots). To further evaluate the effects of BA on lysosomes we investigated lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP), which was measured in terms of the release of CSTB to cytosol30.
Figure 4
BA desastibilized lysosomes of HaCaT keratinocytes.
(a) After treatment for 6 hours with DMSO (control), triterpenoids (20 μM) or TEM (15 μM) cells were stained with LTG and evaluated under confocal microscope. Surface plots below the images represented the fluorescence of LTG-loaded lysosomes. (b) Within 6 hours of DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) addition, cells were stained with LTR (red) and immunostained for total CTSB (green). (i) Fluorescence plot profiles represented line scans of LTR-loaded lysosomes and CTSB (bottom). Micrographs of BA-treated cells (lined area) showing elevated CTSB in cytosol associated with decrease in LTR-loaded lysosomes (ii). At right, surface plots of depicted area drawn in the images (ii). (c) Cathepsin B (CTSB) activity from cytosolic fraction within 3 h of BA (20 μM) addition upon absence (–) or presence of CTSB inhibitor CA074 at 5 μM (+) and 10 μM (++). T1 = after treatment for 24 hours; T2 = 24 hours after T1; T3 = 48 h after T1. All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error. Multiple statistical comparisons were calculated by ANOVA test, and the p-value for each pairwise group was determined by Dunnett’s T3 (high variance between groups) or Bonferroni (low variance between groups) post-hoc test. Significance difference (p < 0.05) was depicted by asterisk.
The loss of lysosomal membrane integrity was measured in terms of decrease in LTR-loading by lysosomes3031 (Fig. 4b). Within 6 hours of treatment with BA, unlike control and OA, we found a subset of cells (lined area) with relevant decrease in the lysosomal LTR-loading (Fig. 4b-i). Parallel to lysosomal membrane instability we observed cytosolic increase in CTSB only after BA treatment (Fig. 4b-ii), which was observed neither under OA nor TEM (Fig. 4b-i, line scans).To quantify the cytosolic CTSB (CTSB protease activity in cytosolic extracts) 6 hours after BA treatment, we analyzed the ability of cleaving the synthetic substrate RR-AFC to release free AFC. Under BA, there was a significant increase in the cytosolic activity of CTSB (Fig. 4c). This activity significantly and specifically decreased (p < 0.001) under presence of CA074, a selective inhibitor of CTSB21.Since accumulation of non-functional autolysosomes and LMP are intrinsically associated with cell death11, we investigated their relation with apoptosis. Under BA there was a significant increase in plasma membrane permeabilization (PI positive cells) as revealed by cytofluorometric analysis (Supplementary Figure S2b). The proportion of apoptotic cells, characterized by the presence of negatively charged lipids that bind to Annexin V (AV) without losing cytoplasmic membrane integrity and therefore avoiding cellular incorporation of Propidium Iodide (PI), were only slightly increased under BA. The percentage of (AV+/PI−) cells for BA was 2% compared to control (p = 0.32). Cells with positive AV staining parallel to cellular incorporation of PI (AV+/PI+) showed a significant increase after BA treatment (14%) compared to control (6%) (p = 0.043). In the case of OA treatment, there was no significant difference for both AV+/PI− and AV+/PI+ populations compared to control. The proportion of AV−/PI+ cells was higher under BA (24%) compared to control (12%) or OA (11%) (p-values of 0.024 and 0.015, respectively, Supplementary Figure S2b). At T1, we also checked for activation of caspase-3, a major modulator of apoptosis, by FACS (Supplementary Figure S2c). Only BA induced an increase in the level of cleaved caspase-3. Accordingly, after gating HaCaT as a function of cell size (FSC) and caspase-3 staining, we revealed that a minor population of treated cells with BA (3.4%) and OA (0.4%) showed increase in caspase-3 compared to control (0.2%) (Supplementary Figure S2g). Interestingly, among caspase-3 positive cells we found a major subpopulation (upper right quadrant) with increase in cell size. This cell enlargement agreed to data showed before for BA (Fig. 1f). In summary, after BA treatment a small fraction of cells showed apoptotic response. However, this small reaction did not correspond to the large loss of ΔΨm and important LMP caused by BA (Figs 2a, 4b, c). In fact, as shown above the large majority of cells die in response to the parallel damage in mitochondrial and lysosomal membranes, leading to mitochondrial-lysosomal axis of cellular stress.
Triterpenoids induce damage in membrane-based models
The data showed above brings an important question: why is BA more efficient than OA in destabilizing lysosomes? In order to answer it, we analyzed the ability of these triterpenoids to interact with membranes both in vitro and in silico.Despite the structural and physicochemical similarities between OA and BA (Table 1), BA exhibited a much stronger ability to interact and damage synthetic membrane. Initially, we evaluated the disruption of liposomes in which the release of internal material (carboxyfluorescein) was measured as a function of time and BA concentration. Accordingly, BA disturbed the liposome system in a dose and time-dependent manner (Fig. 5a). Contrarily, OA and CQ were not capable of interacting directly with liposomes (Fig. 5a). Although CQ impaired lysosomal function1032 mostly due to enlargement of lysosomes by proton sponge effect3033, it did not induce direct damage to the mitochondrial membrane as BA did (data not shown). At equal concentrations (20 μM), BA was much more cytotoxic than CQ and OA in HaCaT10. These observations indicate that the disturbance of the membrane structure may be the basis of BAtoxicity.
Figure 5
Ligand-interactions of triterpenoids in mimetic membranes.
(a) The analysis of cell membrane permeability was based on the release of carboxyfluorescein - CF. The percentage of CF-release was calculated in a time (i) and dose-dependent manner (ii). (b) DPOC, di-oleoyl-phosphocholine (C18∶1) bilayer was submitted to dynamic analysis of membrane interaction. Chemical structures of BA and OA (upper panel). Color coding: C (cyan), O (red) and polar H (white). The arrows indicate the chirality centers relevant for (C-i). Snapshot of the simulated system after 300 ns showing both BA and OA (van der Walls spheres) and the phospholipid bilayer depicted in gray. (c) Time evolution of the distance between triterpenoids and the bilayer center (i); in a second independent run (ii); and when the structure of both BA and OA was modified (iii) by inverting the chirality of the carbon atoms indicated by arrows in (B, upper triterpenoids structures). The dashed line represents the bilayer headgroups region. All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error.
In spite of being chemical isomers, BA and OA have subtle structural differences. BA has a planar backbone, while in OA there has a twist between the two rings connected to the carboxyl group (Fig. 5b). Molecular dynamics simulations showed that both BA and OA were able to penetrate into a POPC, 2-oleoyl-1-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (C16,18:1) bilayer down to the region immediately bellow the lipid headgroups (Fig. 5b), but with different efficiencies and kinetics. In a first simulation, both triterpenoids reached a distance of ca. 1.3 nm from the bilayer center and remained at this region until the end of the simulation (300 ns). However, the speed of the immersion process was considerably faster for BA. It took ca. 20 ns for BA to reach its equilibrium position bellow the phosphate headgroups, while the same process took ca. 170 ns for OA. We performed an additional simulation with the drugs initially placed at different positions. In this second independent run an immersion time of 25 ns was obtained for BA, while OA did not penetrate at all during the full 300 ns run (Fig. 5c). Next, we performed additional simulations in which one of the carbon atoms at the backbone end (indicated by an arrow in Fig. 5b) had its chirality inverted. This led to a twisted structure in BA and a fully planar structure in OA. As shown in Fig. 5c-iii, the immersion of BA was significantly delayed upon chirality inversion. In a similar manner, the time required for OA penetration was reduced. This is a clear indication of the influence of the backbone twist on the speed of penetration of cyclic triterpenoids in model membranes.
OA behaves similarly to BA when lysosomes is chemically impaired
Although efficient autophagy avoided the accumulation of OA-damaged mitochondria in HaCaT, we asked whether OA would trigger cell death similarly to BA if an extrinsic lysosomal damage was induced. For that, we investigated the effects of OA on HaCaT cellular survival after inhibiting lysosome activity with CQ or BAF (Fig. 6a). As expected, at T2 the cellular survival rates observed for BA-treated cells did not significantly change regardless of the presence of CQ, p = 1.0 (Fig. 6a). Contrarily, OA-treated cells in the presence of CQ exhibited significant decrease in cell survival (55%) compared to control (80%), p < 0.001. Next, to test if this decrease of cellular survival was significantly correlated with accumulation of lysosomes, as quantified by AAU10, we evaluated cell response as a function of time (Fig. 6b). OA-treated cells showed decrease of cell survival correlated to increase in AAU upon inhibition of autophagy by CQ (r = −0.5). On the other hand, in the case of BA we observed a lack of correlation under autophagy inhibition by CQ (r = 0.1) compared to control BA (r = −0.8).
Figure 6
OA became cytotoxic after lysosomal impairment.
(a) HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with DMSO (control) and CQ (25 μM) for 24 hours. (b) At indicative times cell survival was evaluated by MTT assay following calculation of AAU. The correlation between cell survival and AAU was evaluated as function of time T1, T2 and T3. (c) After treatment for 6 hours with DMSO (control), OA (20 μM) or CCCP (2 μM) in presence or absence of BAF (2 ηM) citrate synthase activity was presented as arbitrary units after normalization to control. Micrographs of treated cells at T1 with DMSO (control) and triterpenoids (20 μM) in presence or absence of BAF (2 ηM) treatment, following immunostaining for (d) the mitochondrial marker COXIV (green) and (e) p62 (red). At bottom panel, box-plots represented the fluorescence profile of multiple images. T1 = after treatment for 24 hours; T2 = 24 hours after T1; T3 = 48 h after T1. All results were obtained from at least three independent experiments and expressed as mean values ± standard error. Multiple statistical comparisons were calculated by ANOVA test, and the p-value for each pairwise group was determined by Dunnett’s T3 (high variance between groups) or Bonferroni (low variance between groups) post-hoc test. The analysis of correlation was done using Pearson’s coefficient (r). Significance difference (p < 0.05) was depicted by asterisk.
The inhibition of autolysosome content degradation triggered by BAF in combination with OA or CCCP caused a significant increase in CS activity when compared to BAF untreated cells (Fig. 6c). This increase can be attributed to the huge accumulation of mitochondrial mass, as shown by fluorescence microscopy (bulk green) (Fig. 6d-i). Unlike OA, BA-treated cells did not show remarkable alteration of mitochondrial mass when treated with BAF (Fig. 6d-ii). In an attempt to further examine the impact of OA treatment in cells with defective lysosomes induced by BAF, we evaluated the recruitment of adaptor molecules such as p62, which represents a general selective degradation signal in mammalian cells, not only for protein aggregates but also for membrane-bound organelles27. Herein, the labeling of the endogenous p62 in the cytosol of OA-treated cells increased upon lysosomal impairment (Fig. 6e-i). Note that in the case of BA there was a decrease of p62 upon autophagy inhibition by BAF (Fig. 6e-ii). Other data in the manuscript concerning damage in lysosome or mitochondria by BA also indicated that OA behave similarly to BA if lysosomal function is somehow compromised (Supplementary Figure S1, Fig. 3a,d). Therefore, if lysosome is damaged, OA also induces efficient cell death with autophagy (Fig. 6b).
Discussion
BA is a promising anti-cancer agent and the entire family of pentacyclictriterpenoids may provide new leads for anti-cancer and anti-microbial drugs3435. Both BA and OA caused significant depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, but only BA efficiently induced cell death. Although we observed small fractions of cells with cytoplasmic membrane permeabilization (AV−/PI+) and with apoptotic phenotype (AV+/PI−, AV+/PI+ and caspase 3 activation), neither necrosis nor apoptosis were the main mechanisms of cell death. The few dying cells showing these characteristics also showed conspicuous vacuolization (granularity), parallel to enhancement of mitochondrial mass. The proportion of dead cells increased with lysosomal instability in a time-dependent manner, indicating cell death with autophagy. As demonstrated for several other cell types1820, we have shown that BA also activates autophagy in HaCaT and HeLa cells.OA treatment resulted in marked cytoplasmic vacuolization and mitochondrion shrinkage with remarkable cellular recovery that was intrinsically associated with autophagy activation. However, cell recovery failed upon treatment with lysosomal inhibitors (Chloroquine or Bafilomycin-A1). As previously shown20, autophagic flux was found to be non-functional after BA treatment, leading to diminished degradation of long-lived LC3-II and p62 proteins. The lysosomal damage BA-mediated was per se capable of compromising autophagy, without any incremental damage when lysosomal function was deeply altered by lysosomal inhibitors (CQ or BAF). BA-vacuolated cells survived for several hours and showed a remarkable mitochondrial accumulation. This later event probably led to continuous loss of lysosomal function, turning autophagy into a destructive process36. The relationship between cell death and acid vacuole accumulation was quantified by the correlation between AAU10 and cell death.BA disrupted lysosome membrane causing some leakage of cathepsins; however, lysosomal leakage was not the main effect of BA, since most lysosomes were able to maintain pH gradient (as shown by the accumulation of lysosomotropic dyes). In addition, over time, there is a strong accumulation of cathepsins within lysosomes. The damage in lysosomal function caused by BA cannot either be explained by traditional mechanisms such as lack of lysosome acidification or neutralization, since BA and AO have almost identical acid-base equilibria (Table 1). The main differences between the biological effects of BA and OA were due to their efficiencies in interacting with and damaging membranes. BA is miscible with the outer leaflet membrane phospholipids37, being capable of changing permeability of mimetic membranes3839. In this study, unlike OA, BA induced significant in vitro membrane leakage that was associated with in vivo membrane impairment of mitochondria and lysosome. The ability of BA to disturb the mitochondrial membrane is in agreement with other data that shows specific interactions between BA and Cardiolipin in Langmuir monolayers38. BA was also shown to disrupt membranes of human red blood cells (RBC) in vitro39.Taken together, our results indicate a new paradigm concerning the fate of autophagy. Whether it will cause cell rescue or cell death, it seems to depend on the extent of membrane damage, as summarized in Fig. 7. The late harmful effects of BA relates to a mitochondrial-lysosomal axis of cellular stress, which will end up causing cell death with autophagy in HaCaT. This paradigm explains the higher cytotoxicity of BA compared to OA and may help in the search for new anti-tumoral molecules40.
Figure 7
Scheme of triterpenoids effects on HaCaT keratinocytes.
Parallel damage in the mitochondrial and lysosomal membranes leads to cell death with autophagy. This figure was drawn by W. K. M.
Since many drugs that suppress autophagy flux act as weak bases, by studying BA and OA we proposed an alternative mechanism to compromise autophagy based on disturbance of the membranes of key organelles. Our findings suggest that causing early functional activation of autophagy due to mitochondrial damage parallel to higher impairment of lysosomes may represent an interesting strategy to attack multi-drug resistant tumors that escape apoptosis41.It is interesting to consider that BA targets membranes of organelles (mitochondria and lysosome) but seems to preserve the cytoplasmic membranes. It is very likely that BA molecules enter cells by endocytosis and therefore the molecular answer of why cytoplasmic membrane is not affected by BA will have to await a more complete understanding of the intracellular membrane trafficking and on the effects of BA. We hope this paper contributes to future work on this direction.
Methods
Cell lines and cell culture
We cultured immortalized human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT)8 and epidermoid carcinoma of the cervix (HeLa)42 in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM, Sigma-aldrich) supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (FBS), 100 U/mL of penicillin, 25 μg/mL of amphotericin B and 100 μg/mL of streptomycin in a 37 °C incubator at a moist atmosphere of 5% carbon dioxide. HaCaT cell lines were gently supplied by Dr. Hugo Armelin, Butantan Institute, Brazil. HeLa cell lines were gently supplied by Dra. Mary Sogayar, NUCEL, Brazil.
Correlation of cell death with lysosome accumulation
TriterpenoidsBA and OA (Sigma-aldrich) were dissolved in DMSO (4 mg/mL) and diluted to the required concentration in DMEM (Sigma-aldrich) supplemented with 1% (v/v) fetal calf serum (FBS), 100 U/mL of penicillin, 25 μg/mL of amphotericin B and 100 μg/mL of streptomycin in a 37 °C incubator at a moist atmosphere of 5% carbon dioxide. After seeding, we treated exponentially growing humanHaCaT with triterpenoids at increasing concentrations (10–30 μM), and incubated for 24 hours at 37 °C. Next, to quantify the augmentation of lysosomal compartment intrinsically correlated to cell death we applied a recent strategy based on a numeric variable AAU (autophagic arbitrary units)10. Briefly, its conceptual framework is the uptake of the lysosomotropic reagent Neutral Red (Sigma-aldrich) in enlarged autophagic vacuoles engaging in cell death. This NR-uptake was then weighted by the average of cell survival measured by MTT and CVS (Crystal Violet Staining) assays, allowing the calculation of AAU. For this, cells were stained with 30 μg/mL of NR at 37 °C for 2 hours. After washing, NR was eluted with an alcoholic-based 1% (v/v) acetic acid fixing solution and measured at 540 nm, using the microplate reader Infinite® 200 PRO (TECAN). These fixed cells after washing with water were used for CVS assay.
Cellular cytotoxicity
To analyze survival rate rather than short-term cytotoxicity, we allowed HaCaT to proliferate for two population doubling times (PDTs) after treatment with BA or OA (both from Sigma-aldrich) in a dose-dependent manner (10–30 μM) for 24 hours at 37 °C. We performed independently CVS and MTT assays. Briefly, after treatment we added cells to medium containing MTT (Sigma-aldrich) at 50 μg/mL and incubated for 2 hours at 37 °C. Next, the MTT reduced-product formazan was solubilized in DMSO (Sigma-aldrich), and absorbance values were read at 550 nm, using the microplate reader Infinite® 200 PRO (TECAN). For the CVS assay, fixed cells from NRU-assay were stained with Crystal Violet (CV, Sigma-aldrich) at 0.02% (w/v) for 5 minutes at room temperature. After washing, we eluted CV with 0.1 M sodium citrate in 50% (v/v) ethanol, and recorded absorbance values at 585 nm10.
Immunostaining (microscopy and FACS)
For comparative analysis, HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with triterpenoids (20 μM) for 24 hours, and the biological effects were observed after indicative times. After fixation and blocking, we incubated slides with primary rabbit monoclonal antibodies against caspase-3 active form (CASP3, Cell Signaling Technology), microtubule-associated proteins 1B (LC3B, Cell Signaling Technology), ubiquitin binding protein sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62, Cell Signaling Technology) and the heavy chain of mature Cathepsin B (CTSB, Abcam). We used also primary mouse monoclonal antibodies against lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2A, Abcam) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV (mouse IGg COXIV, Molecular Probes) according to manufacturer’s instructions. To reveal the primary antibody linkage we used goat antibodies against mouse IgG (Alexa 488 or 633) or rabbit IgG (Alexa 488 or 633), all from Molecular probes (Eugene, OR, USA). We analyzed 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) counterstained slides under confocal microscope (Zeiss™ Axiovert 200 LSM 510 Laser and Confocor Modules) equipped with a Plan-APOCHROMAT 63X/1.40 oil DIC M27 objective (Zeiss™) and imaged using ImageJ Software (National Institutes of Health). Alternatively, we measured CASP3, LC3-II and COXIV related-fluorescence using flow cytometry (BD FACS Verse™). At least 20,000 events were collected in each analysis. Data was further analyzed by FlowJo software. Following guidelines27, we washed treated-cells with PBS containing digitonin (0.25 mg/mL) and processed for FACS analysis for endogenous LC3-II.
Labeling of acidic compartments in live cells
For comparative analysis, HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with triterpenoids (20 μM), and the acidic compartments were evaluated after indicative times. Both lysosomotropic dyes Acridine Orange (AO, Sigma-aldrich) and acidophilic lysosomal probes LysoTracker Green (LTG, Molecular Probes) and LysoTracker Red (LTR, Molecular probes) were used as probes to primarily detect lysosomes1127. In brief, we incubated HaCaT with 100 ηM LTG, 500 ηM LTR or 1 μg/mL AO in DMEM 1% (v/v) FBS at 37 °C for 15 min. After washing, we immediately analyzed live-cells under confocal microscope as described above. Since LTR-loading remained retained in lysosomes even after aldehyde fixation, we could performed confocal microscopy following immunostaining. Alternatively, we collected at least 20,000 events to further flow cytofluorometric analysis of AO (BD FACS Verse™) using FlowJo software.
Mitochondrial function
HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with triterpenoids (20 μM), and the mitochondrial function was evaluated after indicative times. According to manufacturer’s instructions the following fluorescent probes were used to examine mitochondrial function43: Rhodamine 123 (Rh123, Sigma-aldrich) and MitoTracker Red CMH2XRos (MTR, Molecular Probes) to monitor mitochondrial inner transmembrane potential (ΔΨm); MitoTracker Green FM (MTG, Molecular Probes) to measure cellular mitochondria content. MTG is a cell-permeant mitochondrial-specific dye that becomes fluorescent only on sequestration by mitochondria44. However, unlike RH123 and CMH2XRos, MTG covalently binds to mitochondrial proteins and thus can be used as a measure of mitochondrial mass independent of ΔΨm44. To quantify the fluorescence emission of MTG or Rh123 we collected at least 30,000 events to further cytofluorometric analysis (BD FACS Verse™). To analyze the data we used the FlowJo software. Alternatively, we used confocal microscopy to monitor ΔΨm regarding MTR fluorescence.
Annexin V-FITC/PI double-labeled flow cytometry
The apoptosis phenotype was measured in HaCaT treated with triterpenoids (20 μM) at T1. Two-color flow cytometry was applied to detect the expression of Annexin V-FITC and the exclusion of PI. The cells positive for Annexin V-FITC and negative for PI represented the early apoptotic cells, whereas the cells positive for both markers represented the late apoptotic cells. The total apoptosis (%) was the sum of the early and late apoptotic cells. Briefly, after the treatment HaCaT keratinocytes were collected and washed twice with PBS and resuspended in 500 μL binding buffer. A total of 5 μL of Annexin V-FITC (Sigma-Aldrich) and 5 μL of PI were added, and the samples were maintained at room temperature for 10 min in the dark. To quantify the fluorescence emission of Annexin V-FITC (FL1) or PI (FL3) we collected at least 20,000 events to further cytofluorometric analysis (BD FACS Verse™). To analyze the data we used the FlowJo software.
Western blot
Cell lysates were prepared in lysis buffer [20 mM PIPES, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 10% (w/v) sacarose, 0.1% (v/v) CHAPS, 0.1% (v/v) Triton X-100, 1 mM PMSF, 2 μM Pepstatin A, 50 μM digitonin]. 20 μg of total proteins were separated in 12% acrylamide gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes (GE healthcare) using a semidry system (GE healthcare). Membranes were incubated in PBS with 5% (v/v) milk and 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 for one hour and with primary antibodies (anti-LC3 from Cell Signaling Technology and anti-GAPDH from Sigma) in PBS with 2.5% (v/v) milk and 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 for two hours. Three washing steps with PBS 1 × 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 for 10 min were performed and followed by incubation with secondary antibody (anti-rabbit HRP from KPL) diluted in PBS with 2.5% (v/v) milk and 0.1% (v/v) Tween for one hour. Membranes were washed twice in PBS 1 × 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 and once in PBS, 10 min each. After incubation with ECL Prime Western Blotting Detection Reagent (GE healthcare) for five minutes, membranes were exposed to X-Ray films. Images (in TIF files) were analyzed using ImageJ software and the results were normalized to GAPDH band intensities.
Citrate synthase assay
Mitochondrial content over time was measured by assaying the citrate synthase activity, which decreases linearly regard with autophagy induction27. Following treatment with 2 μM CCCP (Sigma-aldrich) and 20 μM triterpenoids for 6 hours at 37 °C, HaCaT keratinocytes were washed once with PBS and lysed on the plate in 0.25% (v/v) Triton X-100 in PBS supplemented with protease and phosphatase inhibitors. Debris was removed by centrifugation and CS activity measured by following the oxidation of 5,5′-Dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) in a spectrophotometer (absorbance at 412 nm) over time at 37 °C in the presence of acetyl co-enzyme A and oxaloacetate. Protein concentration in the same aliquot was measured using the BRADFORD assay (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA) and enzyme activity normalized by total protein and expressed as arbitrary units (a. u.) after ratio to control (DMSO).
CF-released measurement
To analyze the ability of triterpenoids to interact with membranes we performed a membrane-based mimic of cell membranes, which is based on the release of carboxyfluorescein (CF, Sigma-aldrich) from unilamellar liposomes, as previously described45. Liposomes were treated with Chloroquine IC50 (60 μM) and triterpenoids (20 μM) after the indicated times, or with triterpenoids in a dose-dependent manner (20 to 100 μM) for 6 hours. We calculated the rates of CF leakage as percent of total trapped CF release (Ft) under 0.2% (v/v) Triton X-100.
Measurement of Cathepsin activities
HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with triterpenoids (20 μM) for the indicated time and the activity of cathepsins was evaluated by a fluorimetric assay (BioVision Inc.). Briefly, HaCaT keratinocytes were lysed in 50–100 μL of chilled lysis buffer. After 10 min incubation on ice, cytosolic fraction was separated from the rest of the cell debris by centrifugation at 10,000 g at 4°C for 5 min and supernatant was retained for analysis of cytosolic cathepsins related to LMP. Alternatively, whole-cell extracts were obtained after lysing the cell debris above with more 50–100 μL of chilled lysis buffer followed by freezing/thawing cycles (3×). Next, these whole-cell lysates were centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min at 4 °C, and 15 μg of protein per sample was used for enzymatic assays Protein concentration in the same aliquot was measured using the BRADFORD assay (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA) and enzyme activity normalized by total protein and expressed as arbitrary units (a. u.) after ratio to control (DMSO). The quantification of lysosome cathepsin was performed by subtracting from the total cathepsin the cytosolic cathepsin activity.
Measurement of total cathepsin B by ELISE
HaCaT keratinocytes were treated with BA (20 μM) for the indicated time and the quantity of total cathepsin B (CTSB) was evaluated by ELISA assay (R&D Systems). Briefly, whole-cell extracts were obtained as described above. Next, these whole-cell lysates were centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min at 4 °C, and at least 15 μg of protein per sample was used. Protein concentration in the same aliquot was measured using the BRADFORD assay (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA) and total CTSB normalized by total protein and expressed as ρg/mL.
Molecular dynamics simulations on DOPC bilayers
Molecular dynamics simulations were performed using the GROMACS 4.5.1 simulation package4647. Molecular motions were computed by numerical integration of Newton’s equations with a time step of 2 fs. Fully hydrated lipid bilayers of POPC were represented using interaction parameters that have been previously validated against experimental membrane properties48. For compatibility, the pentacyclictriterpenoidsBA and OA were assembled using the standard functional groups in the GROMOS53A6 force field49. Starting configurations were obtained from a pre-equilibrated membrane patch with 128 lipid molecules. One triterpenoid per membrane leaflet was initially placed at the aqueous phase at a distance of ca 3 nm from the bilayer surface. Overall, each simulated system had lateral dimensions of ca. 6.2 nm parallel to the membrane surface (xy-plane) and ca. 8.5 nm along the bilayer normal (z-axis). Periodic boundary conditions were applied in all Cartesian directions. The simulation protocol started with an equilibration run for 5.5 ns, during which the position of all triterpenoids was kept restrained. These molecules were then released and molecular trajectories were recorded for 300 ns under controlled temperature (310 K) and pressure (1 atm).
Statistics
Statistical analysis was performed using IBM® SPSS Statistics version 20. We analyzed data obtained from at least three independent experiments (n = 3), and expressed as mean values ± standard error. To perform comparative statistical analysis, we first analyzed the variance between groups. Next, multiple comparisons were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Dunnett’s T3 or Bonferroni post-hoc test, depending on homogeneity of variance. The analysis of correlation was done using Pearson’s coefficient (r). An α = 5% (p < 0.05) was considered in every case to be statistically significant.
Additional Information
How to cite this article: Martins, W. K. et al. Parallel damage in mitochondrial and lysosomal compartments promotes efficient cell death with autophagy: The case of the pentacyclictriterpenoids. Sci. Rep.
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Authors: Daniel J Klionsky; Amal Kamal Abdel-Aziz; Sara Abdelfatah; Mahmoud Abdellatif; Asghar Abdoli; Steffen Abel; Hagai Abeliovich; Marie H Abildgaard; Yakubu Princely Abudu; Abraham Acevedo-Arozena; Iannis E Adamopoulos; Khosrow Adeli; Timon E Adolph; Annagrazia Adornetto; Elma Aflaki; Galila Agam; Anupam Agarwal; Bharat B Aggarwal; Maria Agnello; Patrizia Agostinis; Javed N Agrewala; Alexander Agrotis; Patricia V Aguilar; S Tariq Ahmad; Zubair M Ahmed; Ulises Ahumada-Castro; Sonja Aits; Shu Aizawa; Yunus Akkoc; Tonia Akoumianaki; Hafize Aysin Akpinar; Ahmed M Al-Abd; Lina Al-Akra; Abeer Al-Gharaibeh; Moulay A Alaoui-Jamali; Simon Alberti; Elísabet Alcocer-Gómez; Cristiano Alessandri; Muhammad Ali; M Abdul Alim Al-Bari; Saeb Aliwaini; Javad Alizadeh; Eugènia Almacellas; Alexandru Almasan; Alicia Alonso; Guillermo D Alonso; Nihal Altan-Bonnet; Dario C Altieri; Élida M C Álvarez; Sara Alves; Cristine Alves da Costa; Mazen M Alzaharna; Marialaura Amadio; Consuelo Amantini; Cristina Amaral; Susanna Ambrosio; Amal O Amer; Veena Ammanathan; Zhenyi An; Stig U Andersen; Shaida A Andrabi; Magaiver Andrade-Silva; Allen M Andres; Sabrina Angelini; David Ann; Uche C Anozie; Mohammad Y Ansari; Pedro Antas; Adam Antebi; Zuriñe Antón; Tahira Anwar; Lionel Apetoh; Nadezda Apostolova; Toshiyuki Araki; Yasuhiro Araki; Kohei Arasaki; Wagner L Araújo; Jun Araya; Catherine Arden; Maria-Angeles Arévalo; Sandro Arguelles; Esperanza Arias; Jyothi Arikkath; Hirokazu Arimoto; Aileen R Ariosa; Darius Armstrong-James; Laetitia Arnauné-Pelloquin; Angeles Aroca; Daniela S Arroyo; Ivica Arsov; Rubén Artero; Dalia Maria Lucia Asaro; Michael Aschner; Milad Ashrafizadeh; Osnat Ashur-Fabian; Atanas G Atanasov; Alicia K Au; Patrick Auberger; Holger W Auner; Laure Aurelian; Riccardo Autelli; Laura Avagliano; Yenniffer Ávalos; Sanja Aveic; Célia Alexandra Aveleira; Tamar Avin-Wittenberg; Yucel Aydin; Scott Ayton; Srinivas Ayyadevara; Maria Azzopardi; Misuzu Baba; Jonathan M Backer; Steven K Backues; Dong-Hun Bae; Ok-Nam Bae; Soo Han Bae; Eric H Baehrecke; Ahruem Baek; Seung-Hoon Baek; Sung Hee Baek; Giacinto Bagetta; Agnieszka Bagniewska-Zadworna; Hua Bai; Jie Bai; Xiyuan Bai; Yidong Bai; Nandadulal Bairagi; Shounak Baksi; Teresa Balbi; Cosima T Baldari; Walter Balduini; Andrea Ballabio; Maria Ballester; Salma Balazadeh; Rena Balzan; Rina Bandopadhyay; Sreeparna Banerjee; Sulagna Banerjee; Ágnes Bánréti; Yan Bao; Mauricio S Baptista; Alessandra Baracca; Cristiana Barbati; Ariadna Bargiela; Daniela Barilà; Peter G Barlow; Sami J Barmada; Esther Barreiro; George E Barreto; Jiri Bartek; Bonnie Bartel; Alberto Bartolome; Gaurav R Barve; Suresh H Basagoudanavar; Diane C Bassham; Robert C Bast; Alakananda Basu; Henri Batoko; Isabella Batten; Etienne E Baulieu; Bradley L Baumgarner; Jagadeesh Bayry; Rupert Beale; Isabelle Beau; Florian Beaumatin; Luiz R G Bechara; George R Beck; Michael F Beers; Jakob Begun; Christian Behrends; Georg M N Behrens; Roberto Bei; Eloy Bejarano; Shai Bel; Christian Behl; Amine Belaid; Naïma Belgareh-Touzé; Cristina Bellarosa; Francesca Belleudi; Melissa Belló Pérez; Raquel Bello-Morales; Jackeline Soares de Oliveira Beltran; Sebastián Beltran; Doris Mangiaracina Benbrook; Mykolas Bendorius; Bruno A Benitez; Irene Benito-Cuesta; Julien Bensalem; Martin W Berchtold; Sabina Berezowska; Daniele Bergamaschi; Matteo Bergami; Andreas Bergmann; Laura Berliocchi; Clarisse Berlioz-Torrent; Amélie Bernard; Lionel Berthoux; Cagri G Besirli; Sebastien Besteiro; Virginie M Betin; Rudi Beyaert; Jelena S Bezbradica; Kiran Bhaskar; Ingrid Bhatia-Kissova; Resham Bhattacharya; Sujoy Bhattacharya; Shalmoli Bhattacharyya; Md Shenuarin Bhuiyan; Sujit Kumar Bhutia; Lanrong Bi; Xiaolin Bi; Trevor J Biden; Krikor Bijian; Viktor A Billes; Nadine Binart; Claudia Bincoletto; Asa B Birgisdottir; Geir Bjorkoy; Gonzalo Blanco; Ana Blas-Garcia; Janusz Blasiak; Robert Blomgran; Klas Blomgren; Janice S Blum; Emilio Boada-Romero; Mirta Boban; Kathleen Boesze-Battaglia; Philippe Boeuf; Barry Boland; Pascale Bomont; Paolo Bonaldo; Srinivasa Reddy Bonam; Laura Bonfili; Juan S Bonifacino; Brian A Boone; Martin D Bootman; Matteo Bordi; Christoph Borner; Beat C Bornhauser; Gautam Borthakur; Jürgen Bosch; Santanu Bose; Luis M Botana; Juan Botas; Chantal M Boulanger; Michael E Boulton; Mathieu Bourdenx; Benjamin Bourgeois; Nollaig M Bourke; Guilhem Bousquet; Patricia Boya; Peter V Bozhkov; Luiz H M Bozi; Tolga O Bozkurt; Doug E Brackney; Christian H Brandts; Ralf J Braun; Gerhard H Braus; Roberto Bravo-Sagua; José M Bravo-San Pedro; Patrick Brest; Marie-Agnès Bringer; Alfredo Briones-Herrera; V Courtney Broaddus; Peter Brodersen; Jeffrey L Brodsky; Steven L Brody; Paola G Bronson; Jeff M Bronstein; Carolyn N Brown; Rhoderick E Brown; Patricia C Brum; John H Brumell; Nicola Brunetti-Pierri; Daniele Bruno; Robert J Bryson-Richardson; Cecilia Bucci; Carmen Buchrieser; Marta Bueno; Laura Elisa Buitrago-Molina; Simone Buraschi; Shilpa Buch; J Ross Buchan; Erin M Buckingham; Hikmet Budak; Mauricio Budini; Geert Bultynck; Florin Burada; Joseph R Burgoyne; M Isabel Burón; Victor Bustos; Sabrina Büttner; Elena Butturini; Aaron Byrd; Isabel Cabas; Sandra Cabrera-Benitez; Ken Cadwell; Jingjing Cai; Lu Cai; Qian Cai; Montserrat Cairó; Jose A Calbet; Guy A Caldwell; Kim A Caldwell; Jarrod A Call; Riccardo Calvani; Ana C Calvo; Miguel Calvo-Rubio Barrera; Niels Os Camara; Jacques H Camonis; Nadine Camougrand; Michelangelo Campanella; Edward M Campbell; François-Xavier Campbell-Valois; Silvia Campello; Ilaria Campesi; Juliane C Campos; Olivier Camuzard; Jorge Cancino; Danilo Candido de Almeida; Laura Canesi; Isabella Caniggia; Barbara Canonico; Carles Cantí; Bin Cao; Michele Caraglia; Beatriz Caramés; Evie H Carchman; Elena Cardenal-Muñoz; Cesar Cardenas; Luis Cardenas; Sandra M Cardoso; Jennifer S Carew; Georges F Carle; Gillian Carleton; Silvia Carloni; Didac Carmona-Gutierrez; Leticia A Carneiro; Oliana Carnevali; Julian M Carosi; Serena Carra; Alice Carrier; Lucie Carrier; Bernadette Carroll; A Brent Carter; Andreia Neves Carvalho; Magali Casanova; Caty Casas; Josefina Casas; Chiara Cassioli; Eliseo F Castillo; Karen Castillo; Sonia Castillo-Lluva; Francesca Castoldi; Marco Castori; Ariel F Castro; Margarida Castro-Caldas; Javier Castro-Hernandez; Susana Castro-Obregon; Sergio D Catz; Claudia Cavadas; Federica Cavaliere; Gabriella Cavallini; Maria Cavinato; Maria L Cayuela; Paula Cebollada Rica; Valentina Cecarini; Francesco Cecconi; Marzanna Cechowska-Pasko; Simone Cenci; Victòria Ceperuelo-Mallafré; João J Cerqueira; Janete M Cerutti; Davide Cervia; Vildan Bozok Cetintas; Silvia Cetrullo; Han-Jung Chae; Andrei S Chagin; Chee-Yin Chai; Gopal Chakrabarti; Oishee Chakrabarti; Tapas Chakraborty; Trinad Chakraborty; Mounia Chami; Georgios Chamilos; David W Chan; Edmond Y W Chan; Edward D Chan; H Y Edwin Chan; Helen H Chan; Hung Chan; Matthew T V Chan; Yau Sang Chan; Partha K Chandra; Chih-Peng Chang; Chunmei Chang; Hao-Chun Chang; Kai Chang; Jie Chao; Tracey Chapman; Nicolas Charlet-Berguerand; Samrat Chatterjee; Shail K Chaube; Anu Chaudhary; Santosh Chauhan; Edward Chaum; Frédéric Checler; Michael E Cheetham; Chang-Shi Chen; Guang-Chao Chen; Jian-Fu Chen; Liam L Chen; Leilei Chen; Lin Chen; Mingliang Chen; Mu-Kuan Chen; Ning Chen; Quan Chen; Ruey-Hwa Chen; Shi Chen; Wei Chen; Weiqiang Chen; Xin-Ming Chen; Xiong-Wen Chen; Xu Chen; Yan Chen; Ye-Guang Chen; Yingyu Chen; Yongqiang Chen; Yu-Jen Chen; Yue-Qin Chen; Zhefan Stephen Chen; Zhi Chen; Zhi-Hua Chen; Zhijian J Chen; Zhixiang Chen; Hanhua Cheng; Jun Cheng; Shi-Yuan Cheng; Wei Cheng; Xiaodong Cheng; Xiu-Tang Cheng; Yiyun Cheng; Zhiyong Cheng; Zhong Chen; Heesun Cheong; Jit Kong Cheong; Boris V Chernyak; Sara Cherry; Chi Fai Randy Cheung; Chun Hei Antonio Cheung; King-Ho Cheung; Eric Chevet; Richard J Chi; Alan Kwok Shing Chiang; Ferdinando Chiaradonna; Roberto Chiarelli; Mario Chiariello; Nathalia Chica; Susanna Chiocca; Mario Chiong; Shih-Hwa Chiou; Abhilash I Chiramel; Valerio Chiurchiù; Dong-Hyung Cho; Seong-Kyu Choe; Augustine M K Choi; Mary E Choi; Kamalika Roy Choudhury; Norman S Chow; Charleen T Chu; Jason P Chua; John Jia En Chua; Hyewon Chung; Kin Pan Chung; Seockhoon Chung; So-Hyang Chung; Yuen-Li Chung; Valentina Cianfanelli; Iwona A Ciechomska; Mariana Cifuentes; Laura Cinque; Sebahattin Cirak; Mara Cirone; Michael J Clague; Robert Clarke; Emilio Clementi; Eliana M Coccia; Patrice Codogno; Ehud Cohen; Mickael M Cohen; Tania Colasanti; Fiorella Colasuonno; Robert A Colbert; Anna Colell; Miodrag Čolić; Nuria S Coll; Mark O Collins; María I Colombo; Daniel A Colón-Ramos; Lydie Combaret; Sergio Comincini; Márcia R Cominetti; Antonella Consiglio; Andrea Conte; Fabrizio Conti; Viorica Raluca Contu; Mark R Cookson; Kevin M Coombs; Isabelle Coppens; Maria Tiziana Corasaniti; Dale P Corkery; Nils Cordes; Katia Cortese; Maria do Carmo Costa; Sarah Costantino; Paola Costelli; Ana Coto-Montes; Peter J Crack; Jose L Crespo; Alfredo Criollo; Valeria Crippa; Riccardo Cristofani; Tamas Csizmadia; Antonio Cuadrado; Bing Cui; Jun Cui; Yixian Cui; Yong Cui; Emmanuel Culetto; Andrea C Cumino; Andrey V Cybulsky; Mark J Czaja; Stanislaw J Czuczwar; Stefania D'Adamo; Marcello D'Amelio; Daniela D'Arcangelo; Andrew C D'Lugos; Gabriella D'Orazi; James A da Silva; Hormos Salimi Dafsari; Ruben K Dagda; Yasin Dagdas; Maria Daglia; Xiaoxia Dai; Yun Dai; Yuyuan Dai; Jessica Dal Col; Paul Dalhaimer; Luisa Dalla Valle; Tobias Dallenga; Guillaume Dalmasso; Markus Damme; Ilaria Dando; Nico P Dantuma; April L Darling; Hiranmoy Das; Srinivasan Dasarathy; Santosh K Dasari; Srikanta Dash; Oliver Daumke; Adrian N Dauphinee; Jeffrey S Davies; Valeria A Dávila; Roger J Davis; Tanja Davis; Sharadha Dayalan Naidu; Francesca De Amicis; Karolien De Bosscher; Francesca De Felice; Lucia De Franceschi; Chiara De Leonibus; Mayara G de Mattos Barbosa; Guido R Y De Meyer; Angelo De Milito; Cosimo De Nunzio; Clara De Palma; Mauro De Santi; Claudio De Virgilio; Daniela De Zio; Jayanta Debnath; Brian J DeBosch; Jean-Paul Decuypere; Mark A Deehan; Gianluca Deflorian; James DeGregori; Benjamin Dehay; Gabriel Del Rio; Joe R Delaney; Lea M D Delbridge; Elizabeth Delorme-Axford; M Victoria Delpino; Francesca Demarchi; Vilma Dembitz; Nicholas D Demers; Hongbin Deng; Zhiqiang Deng; Joern Dengjel; Paul Dent; Donna Denton; Melvin L DePamphilis; Channing J Der; Vojo Deretic; Albert Descoteaux; Laura Devis; Sushil Devkota; Olivier Devuyst; Grant Dewson; Mahendiran Dharmasivam; Rohan Dhiman; Diego di Bernardo; Manlio Di Cristina; Fabio Di Domenico; Pietro Di Fazio; Alessio Di Fonzo; Giovanni Di Guardo; Gianni M Di Guglielmo; Luca Di Leo; Chiara Di Malta; Alessia Di Nardo; Martina Di Rienzo; Federica Di Sano; George Diallinas; Jiajie Diao; Guillermo Diaz-Araya; Inés Díaz-Laviada; Jared M Dickinson; Marc Diederich; Mélanie Dieudé; Ivan Dikic; Shiping Ding; Wen-Xing Ding; Luciana Dini; Jelena Dinić; Miroslav Dinic; Albena T Dinkova-Kostova; Marc S Dionne; Jörg H W Distler; Abhinav Diwan; Ian M C Dixon; Mojgan Djavaheri-Mergny; Ina Dobrinski; Oxana Dobrovinskaya; Radek Dobrowolski; Renwick C J Dobson; Jelena Đokić; Serap Dokmeci Emre; Massimo Donadelli; Bo Dong; Xiaonan Dong; Zhiwu Dong; Gerald W Dorn Ii; Volker Dotsch; Huan Dou; Juan Dou; Moataz Dowaidar; Sami Dridi; Liat Drucker; Ailian Du; Caigan Du; Guangwei Du; Hai-Ning Du; Li-Lin Du; André du Toit; Shao-Bin Duan; Xiaoqiong Duan; Sónia P Duarte; Anna Dubrovska; Elaine A Dunlop; Nicolas Dupont; Raúl V Durán; Bilikere S Dwarakanath; Sergey A Dyshlovoy; Darius Ebrahimi-Fakhari; Leopold Eckhart; Charles L Edelstein; Thomas Efferth; Eftekhar Eftekharpour; Ludwig Eichinger; Nabil Eid; Tobias Eisenberg; N Tony Eissa; Sanaa Eissa; Miriam Ejarque; Abdeljabar El Andaloussi; Nazira El-Hage; Shahenda El-Naggar; Anna Maria Eleuteri; Eman S El-Shafey; Mohamed Elgendy; Aristides G Eliopoulos; María M Elizalde; Philip M Elks; Hans-Peter Elsasser; Eslam S Elsherbiny; Brooke M Emerling; N C Tolga Emre; Christina H Eng; Nikolai Engedal; Anna-Mart Engelbrecht; Agnete S T Engelsen; Jorrit M Enserink; Ricardo Escalante; Audrey Esclatine; Mafalda Escobar-Henriques; Eeva-Liisa Eskelinen; Lucile Espert; Makandjou-Ola Eusebio; Gemma Fabrias; Cinzia Fabrizi; Antonio Facchiano; Francesco Facchiano; Bengt Fadeel; Claudio Fader; Alex C Faesen; W Douglas Fairlie; Alberto Falcó; Bjorn H Falkenburger; Daping Fan; Jie Fan; Yanbo Fan; Evandro F Fang; Yanshan Fang; Yognqi Fang; Manolis Fanto; Tamar Farfel-Becker; Mathias Faure; Gholamreza Fazeli; Anthony O Fedele; Arthur M Feldman; Du Feng; Jiachun Feng; Lifeng Feng; Yibin Feng; Yuchen Feng; Wei Feng; Thais Fenz Araujo; Thomas A Ferguson; Álvaro F Fernández; Jose C Fernandez-Checa; Sonia Fernández-Veledo; Alisdair R Fernie; Anthony W Ferrante; Alessandra Ferraresi; Merari F Ferrari; Julio C B Ferreira; Susan Ferro-Novick; Antonio Figueras; Riccardo Filadi; Nicoletta Filigheddu; Eduardo Filippi-Chiela; Giuseppe Filomeni; Gian Maria Fimia; Vittorio Fineschi; Francesca Finetti; Steven Finkbeiner; Edward A Fisher; Paul B Fisher; Flavio Flamigni; Steven J Fliesler; Trude H Flo; Ida Florance; Oliver Florey; Tullio Florio; Erika Fodor; Carlo Follo; Edward A Fon; Antonella Forlino; Francesco Fornai; Paola Fortini; Anna Fracassi; Alessandro Fraldi; Brunella Franco; Rodrigo Franco; Flavia Franconi; Lisa B Frankel; Scott L Friedman; Leopold F Fröhlich; Gema Frühbeck; Jose M Fuentes; Yukio Fujiki; Naonobu Fujita; Yuuki Fujiwara; Mitsunori Fukuda; Simone Fulda; Luc Furic; Norihiko Furuya; Carmela Fusco; Michaela U Gack; Lidia Gaffke; Sehamuddin Galadari; Alessia Galasso; Maria F Galindo; Sachith Gallolu Kankanamalage; Lorenzo Galluzzi; Vincent Galy; Noor Gammoh; Boyi Gan; Ian G Ganley; Feng Gao; Hui Gao; Minghui Gao; Ping Gao; Shou-Jiang Gao; Wentao Gao; Xiaobo Gao; Ana Garcera; Maria Noé Garcia; Verónica E Garcia; Francisco García-Del Portillo; Vega Garcia-Escudero; Aracely Garcia-Garcia; Marina Garcia-Macia; Diana García-Moreno; Carmen Garcia-Ruiz; Patricia García-Sanz; Abhishek D Garg; Ricardo Gargini; Tina Garofalo; Robert F Garry; Nils C Gassen; Damian Gatica; Liang Ge; Wanzhong Ge; Ruth Geiss-Friedlander; Cecilia Gelfi; Pascal Genschik; Ian E Gentle; Valeria Gerbino; Christoph Gerhardt; Kyla Germain; Marc Germain; David A Gewirtz; Elham Ghasemipour Afshar; Saeid Ghavami; Alessandra Ghigo; Manosij Ghosh; Georgios Giamas; Claudia Giampietri; Alexandra Giatromanolaki; Gary E Gibson; Spencer B Gibson; Vanessa Ginet; Edward Giniger; Carlotta Giorgi; Henrique Girao; Stephen E Girardin; Mridhula Giridharan; Sandy Giuliano; Cecilia Giulivi; Sylvie Giuriato; Julien Giustiniani; Alexander Gluschko; Veit Goder; Alexander Goginashvili; Jakub Golab; David C Goldstone; Anna Golebiewska; Luciana R Gomes; Rodrigo Gomez; Rubén Gómez-Sánchez; Maria Catalina Gomez-Puerto; Raquel Gomez-Sintes; Qingqiu Gong; Felix M Goni; Javier González-Gallego; Tomas Gonzalez-Hernandez; Rosa A Gonzalez-Polo; Jose A Gonzalez-Reyes; Patricia González-Rodríguez; Ing Swie Goping; Marina S Gorbatyuk; Nikolai V Gorbunov; Kıvanç Görgülü; Roxana M Gorojod; Sharon M Gorski; Sandro Goruppi; Cecilia Gotor; Roberta A Gottlieb; Illana Gozes; Devrim Gozuacik; Martin Graef; Markus H Gräler; Veronica Granatiero; Daniel Grasso; Joshua P Gray; Douglas R Green; Alexander Greenhough; Stephen L Gregory; Edward F Griffin; Mark W Grinstaff; Frederic Gros; Charles Grose; Angelina S Gross; Florian Gruber; Paolo Grumati; Tilman Grune; Xueyan Gu; Jun-Lin Guan; Carlos M Guardia; Kishore Guda; Flora Guerra; Consuelo Guerri; Prasun Guha; Carlos Guillén; Shashi Gujar; Anna Gukovskaya; Ilya Gukovsky; Jan Gunst; Andreas Günther; Anyonya R Guntur; Chuanyong Guo; Chun Guo; Hongqing Guo; Lian-Wang Guo; Ming Guo; Pawan Gupta; Shashi Kumar Gupta; Swapnil Gupta; Veer Bala Gupta; Vivek Gupta; Asa B Gustafsson; David D Gutterman; Ranjitha H B; Annakaisa Haapasalo; James E Haber; Aleksandra Hać; Shinji Hadano; Anders J Hafrén; Mansour Haidar; Belinda S Hall; Gunnel Halldén; Anne Hamacher-Brady; Andrea Hamann; Maho Hamasaki; Weidong Han; Malene Hansen; Phyllis I Hanson; Zijian Hao; Masaru Harada; Ljubica Harhaji-Trajkovic; Nirmala Hariharan; Nigil Haroon; James Harris; Takafumi Hasegawa; Noor Hasima Nagoor; Jeffrey A Haspel; Volker Haucke; Wayne D Hawkins; Bruce A Hay; Cole M Haynes; Soren B Hayrabedyan; Thomas S Hays; Congcong He; Qin He; Rong-Rong He; You-Wen He; Yu-Ying He; Yasser Heakal; Alexander M Heberle; J Fielding Hejtmancik; Gudmundur Vignir Helgason; Vanessa Henkel; Marc Herb; Alexander Hergovich; Anna Herman-Antosiewicz; Agustín Hernández; Carlos Hernandez; Sergio Hernandez-Diaz; Virginia Hernandez-Gea; Amaury Herpin; Judit Herreros; Javier H Hervás; Daniel Hesselson; Claudio Hetz; Volker T Heussler; Yujiro Higuchi; Sabine Hilfiker; Joseph A Hill; William S Hlavacek; Emmanuel A Ho; Idy H T Ho; Philip Wing-Lok Ho; Shu-Leong Ho; Wan Yun Ho; G Aaron Hobbs; Mark Hochstrasser; Peter H M Hoet; Daniel Hofius; Paul Hofman; Annika Höhn; Carina I Holmberg; Jose R Hombrebueno; Chang-Won Hong Yi-Ren Hong; Lora V Hooper; Thorsten Hoppe; Rastislav Horos; Yujin Hoshida; I-Lun Hsin; Hsin-Yun Hsu; Bing Hu; Dong Hu; Li-Fang Hu; Ming Chang Hu; Ronggui Hu; Wei Hu; Yu-Chen Hu; Zhuo-Wei Hu; Fang Hua; Jinlian Hua; Yingqi Hua; Chongmin Huan; Canhua Huang; Chuanshu Huang; Chuanxin Huang; Chunling Huang; Haishan Huang; Kun Huang; Michael L H Huang; Rui Huang; Shan Huang; Tianzhi Huang; Xing Huang; Yuxiang Jack Huang; Tobias B Huber; Virginie Hubert; Christian A Hubner; Stephanie M Hughes; William E Hughes; Magali Humbert; Gerhard Hummer; James H Hurley; Sabah Hussain; Salik Hussain; Patrick J Hussey; Martina Hutabarat; Hui-Yun Hwang; Seungmin Hwang; Antonio Ieni; Fumiyo Ikeda; Yusuke Imagawa; Yuzuru Imai; Carol Imbriano; Masaya Imoto; Denise M Inman; Ken Inoki; Juan Iovanna; Renato V Iozzo; Giuseppe Ippolito; Javier E Irazoqui; Pablo Iribarren; Mohd Ishaq; Makoto Ishikawa; Nestor Ishimwe; Ciro Isidoro; Nahed Ismail; Shohreh Issazadeh-Navikas; Eisuke Itakura; Daisuke Ito; Davor Ivankovic; Saška Ivanova; Anand Krishnan V Iyer; José M Izquierdo; Masanori Izumi; Marja Jäättelä; Majid Sakhi Jabir; William T Jackson; Nadia Jacobo-Herrera; Anne-Claire Jacomin; Elise Jacquin; Pooja Jadiya; Hartmut Jaeschke; Chinnaswamy Jagannath; Arjen J Jakobi; Johan Jakobsson; Bassam Janji; Pidder Jansen-Dürr; Patric J Jansson; Jonathan Jantsch; Sławomir Januszewski; Alagie Jassey; Steve Jean; Hélène Jeltsch-David; Pavla Jendelova; Andreas Jenny; Thomas E Jensen; Niels Jessen; Jenna L Jewell; Jing Ji; Lijun Jia; Rui Jia; Liwen Jiang; Qing Jiang; Richeng Jiang; Teng Jiang; Xuejun Jiang; Yu Jiang; Maria Jimenez-Sanchez; Eun-Jung Jin; Fengyan Jin; Hongchuan Jin; Li Jin; Luqi Jin; Meiyan Jin; Si Jin; Eun-Kyeong Jo; Carine Joffre; Terje Johansen; Gail V W Johnson; Simon A Johnston; Eija Jokitalo; Mohit Kumar Jolly; Leo A B Joosten; Joaquin Jordan; Bertrand Joseph; Dianwen Ju; Jeong-Sun Ju; Jingfang Ju; Esmeralda Juárez; Delphine Judith; Gábor Juhász; Youngsoo Jun; Chang Hwa Jung; Sung-Chul Jung; Yong Keun Jung; Heinz Jungbluth; Johannes Jungverdorben; Steffen Just; Kai Kaarniranta; Allen Kaasik; Tomohiro Kabuta; Daniel Kaganovich; Alon Kahana; Renate Kain; Shinjo Kajimura; Maria Kalamvoki; Manjula Kalia; Danuta S Kalinowski; Nina Kaludercic; Ioanna Kalvari; Joanna Kaminska; Vitaliy O Kaminskyy; Hiromitsu Kanamori; Keizo Kanasaki; Chanhee Kang; Rui Kang; Sang Sun Kang; Senthilvelrajan Kaniyappan; Tomotake Kanki; Thirumala-Devi Kanneganti; Anumantha G Kanthasamy; Arthi Kanthasamy; Marc Kantorow; Orsolya Kapuy; Michalis V Karamouzis; Md Razaul Karim; Parimal Karmakar; Rajesh G Katare; Masaru Kato; Stefan H E Kaufmann; Anu Kauppinen; Gur P Kaushal; Susmita Kaushik; Kiyoshi Kawasaki; Kemal Kazan; Po-Yuan Ke; Damien J Keating; Ursula Keber; John H Kehrl; Kate E Keller; Christian W Keller; Jongsook Kim Kemper; Candia M Kenific; Oliver Kepp; Stephanie Kermorgant; Andreas Kern; Robin Ketteler; Tom G Keulers; Boris Khalfin; Hany Khalil; Bilon Khambu; Shahid Y Khan; Vinoth Kumar Megraj Khandelwal; Rekha Khandia; Widuri Kho; Noopur V Khobrekar; Sataree Khuansuwan; Mukhran Khundadze; Samuel A Killackey; Dasol Kim; Deok Ryong Kim; Do-Hyung Kim; Dong-Eun Kim; Eun Young Kim; Eun-Kyoung Kim; Hak-Rim Kim; Hee-Sik Kim; Jeong Hun Kim; Jin Kyung Kim; Jin-Hoi Kim; Joungmok Kim; Ju Hwan Kim; Keun Il Kim; Peter K Kim; Seong-Jun Kim; Scot R Kimball; Adi Kimchi; Alec C Kimmelman; Tomonori Kimura; Matthew A King; Kerri J Kinghorn; Conan G Kinsey; Vladimir Kirkin; Lorrie A Kirshenbaum; Sergey L Kiselev; Shuji Kishi; Katsuhiko Kitamoto; Yasushi Kitaoka; Kaio Kitazato; Richard N Kitsis; Josef T Kittler; Ole Kjaerulff; Peter S Klein; Thomas Klopstock; Jochen Klucken; Helene Knævelsrud; Roland L Knorr; Ben C B Ko; Fred Ko; Jiunn-Liang Ko; Hotaka Kobayashi; Satoru Kobayashi; Ina Koch; Jan C Koch; Ulrich Koenig; Donat Kögel; Young Ho Koh; Masato Koike; Sepp D Kohlwein; Nur M Kocaturk; Masaaki Komatsu; Jeannette König; Toru Kono; Benjamin T Kopp; Tamas Korcsmaros; Gözde Korkmaz; Viktor I Korolchuk; Mónica Suárez Korsnes; Ali Koskela; Janaiah Kota; Yaichiro Kotake; Monica L Kotler; Yanjun Kou; Michael I Koukourakis; Evangelos Koustas; Attila L Kovacs; Tibor Kovács; Daisuke Koya; Tomohiro Kozako; Claudine Kraft; Dimitri Krainc; Helmut Krämer; Anna D Krasnodembskaya; Carole Kretz-Remy; Guido Kroemer; Nicholas T Ktistakis; Kazuyuki Kuchitsu; Sabine Kuenen; Lars Kuerschner; Thomas Kukar; Ajay Kumar; Ashok Kumar; Deepak Kumar; Dhiraj Kumar; Sharad Kumar; Shinji Kume; Caroline Kumsta; Chanakya N Kundu; Mondira Kundu; Ajaikumar B Kunnumakkara; Lukasz Kurgan; Tatiana G Kutateladze; Ozlem Kutlu; SeongAe Kwak; Ho Jeong Kwon; Taeg Kyu Kwon; Yong Tae Kwon; Irene Kyrmizi; Albert La Spada; Patrick Labonté; Sylvain Ladoire; Ilaria Laface; Frank Lafont; Diane C Lagace; Vikramjit Lahiri; Zhibing Lai; Angela S Laird; Aparna Lakkaraju; Trond Lamark; Sheng-Hui Lan; Ane Landajuela; Darius J R Lane; Jon D Lane; Charles H Lang; Carsten Lange; Ülo Langel; Rupert Langer; Pierre Lapaquette; Jocelyn Laporte; Nicholas F LaRusso; Isabel Lastres-Becker; Wilson Chun Yu Lau; Gordon W Laurie; Sergio Lavandero; Betty Yuen Kwan Law; Helen Ka-Wai Law; Rob Layfield; Weidong Le; Herve Le Stunff; Alexandre Y Leary; Jean-Jacques Lebrun; Lionel Y W Leck; Jean-Philippe Leduc-Gaudet; Changwook Lee; Chung-Pei Lee; Da-Hye Lee; Edward B Lee; Erinna F Lee; Gyun Min Lee; He-Jin Lee; Heung Kyu Lee; Jae Man Lee; Jason S Lee; Jin-A Lee; Joo-Yong Lee; Jun Hee Lee; Michael Lee; Min Goo Lee; Min Jae Lee; Myung-Shik Lee; Sang Yoon Lee; Seung-Jae Lee; Stella Y Lee; Sung Bae Lee; Won Hee Lee; Ying-Ray Lee; Yong-Ho Lee; Youngil Lee; Christophe Lefebvre; Renaud Legouis; Yu L Lei; Yuchen Lei; Sergey Leikin; Gerd Leitinger; Leticia Lemus; Shuilong Leng; Olivia Lenoir; Guido Lenz; Heinz Josef Lenz; Paola Lenzi; Yolanda León; Andréia M Leopoldino; Christoph Leschczyk; Stina Leskelä; Elisabeth Letellier; Chi-Ting Leung; Po Sing Leung; Jeremy S Leventhal; Beth Levine; Patrick A Lewis; Klaus Ley; Bin Li; Da-Qiang Li; Jianming Li; Jing Li; Jiong Li; Ke Li; Liwu Li; Mei Li; Min Li; Min Li; Ming Li; Mingchuan Li; Pin-Lan Li; Ming-Qing Li; Qing Li; Sheng Li; Tiangang Li; Wei Li; Wenming Li; Xue Li; Yi-Ping Li; Yuan Li; Zhiqiang Li; Zhiyong Li; Zhiyuan Li; Jiqin Lian; Chengyu Liang; Qiangrong Liang; Weicheng Liang; Yongheng Liang; YongTian Liang; Guanghong Liao; Lujian Liao; Mingzhi Liao; Yung-Feng Liao; Mariangela Librizzi; Pearl P Y Lie; Mary A Lilly; Hyunjung J Lim; Thania R R Lima; Federica Limana; Chao Lin; Chih-Wen Lin; Dar-Shong Lin; Fu-Cheng Lin; Jiandie D Lin; Kurt M Lin; Kwang-Huei Lin; Liang-Tzung Lin; Pei-Hui Lin; Qiong Lin; Shaofeng Lin; Su-Ju Lin; Wenyu Lin; Xueying Lin; Yao-Xin Lin; Yee-Shin Lin; Rafael Linden; Paula Lindner; Shuo-Chien Ling; Paul Lingor; Amelia K Linnemann; Yih-Cherng Liou; Marta M Lipinski; Saška Lipovšek; Vitor A Lira; Natalia Lisiak; Paloma B Liton; Chao Liu; Ching-Hsuan Liu; Chun-Feng Liu; Cui Hua Liu; Fang Liu; Hao Liu; Hsiao-Sheng Liu; Hua-Feng Liu; Huifang Liu; Jia Liu; Jing Liu; Julia Liu; Leyuan Liu; Longhua Liu; Meilian Liu; Qin Liu; Wei Liu; Wende Liu; Xiao-Hong Liu; Xiaodong Liu; Xingguo Liu; Xu Liu; Xuedong Liu; Yanfen Liu; Yang Liu; Yang Liu; Yueyang Liu; Yule Liu; J Andrew Livingston; Gerard Lizard; Jose M Lizcano; Senka Ljubojevic-Holzer; Matilde E LLeonart; David Llobet-Navàs; Alicia Llorente; Chih Hung Lo; Damián Lobato-Márquez; Qi Long; Yun Chau Long; Ben Loos; Julia A Loos; Manuela G López; Guillermo López-Doménech; José Antonio López-Guerrero; Ana T López-Jiménez; Óscar López-Pérez; Israel López-Valero; Magdalena J Lorenowicz; Mar Lorente; Peter Lorincz; Laura Lossi; Sophie Lotersztajn; Penny E Lovat; Jonathan F Lovell; Alenka Lovy; Péter Lőw; Guang Lu; Haocheng Lu; Jia-Hong Lu; Jin-Jian Lu; Mengji Lu; Shuyan Lu; Alessandro Luciani; John M Lucocq; Paula Ludovico; Micah A Luftig; Morten Luhr; Diego Luis-Ravelo; Julian J Lum; Liany Luna-Dulcey; Anders H Lund; Viktor K Lund; Jan D Lünemann; Patrick Lüningschrör; Honglin Luo; Rongcan Luo; Shouqing Luo; Zhi Luo; Claudio Luparello; Bernhard Lüscher; Luan Luu; Alex Lyakhovich; Konstantin G Lyamzaev; Alf Håkon Lystad; Lyubomyr Lytvynchuk; Alvin C Ma; Changle Ma; Mengxiao Ma; Ning-Fang Ma; Quan-Hong Ma; Xinliang Ma; Yueyun Ma; Zhenyi Ma; Ormond A MacDougald; Fernando Macian; Gustavo C MacIntosh; Jeffrey P MacKeigan; Kay F Macleod; Sandra Maday; Frank Madeo; Muniswamy Madesh; Tobias Madl; Julio Madrigal-Matute; Akiko Maeda; Yasuhiro Maejima; Marta Magarinos; Poornima Mahavadi; Emiliano Maiani; Kenneth Maiese; Panchanan Maiti; Maria Chiara Maiuri; Barbara Majello; Michael B Major; Elena Makareeva; Fayaz Malik; Karthik Mallilankaraman; Walter Malorni; Alina Maloyan; Najiba Mammadova; Gene Chi Wai Man; Federico Manai; Joseph D Mancias; Eva-Maria Mandelkow; Michael A Mandell; Angelo A Manfredi; Masoud H Manjili; Ravi Manjithaya; Patricio Manque; Bella B Manshian; Raquel Manzano; Claudia Manzoni; Kai Mao; Cinzia Marchese; Sandrine Marchetti; Anna Maria Marconi; Fabrizio Marcucci; Stefania Mardente; Olga A Mareninova; Marta Margeta; Muriel Mari; Sara Marinelli; Oliviero Marinelli; Guillermo Mariño; Sofia Mariotto; Richard S Marshall; Mark R Marten; Sascha Martens; Alexandre P J Martin; Katie R Martin; Sara Martin; Shaun Martin; Adrián Martín-Segura; Miguel A Martín-Acebes; Inmaculada Martin-Burriel; Marcos Martin-Rincon; Paloma Martin-Sanz; José A Martina; Wim Martinet; Aitor Martinez; Ana Martinez; Jennifer Martinez; Moises Martinez Velazquez; Nuria Martinez-Lopez; Marta Martinez-Vicente; Daniel O Martins; Joilson O Martins; Waleska K Martins; Tania Martins-Marques; Emanuele Marzetti; Shashank Masaldan; Celine Masclaux-Daubresse; Douglas G Mashek; Valentina Massa; Lourdes Massieu; Glenn R Masson; Laura Masuelli; Anatoliy I Masyuk; Tetyana V Masyuk; Paola Matarrese; Ander Matheu; Satoaki Matoba; Sachiko Matsuzaki; Pamela Mattar; Alessandro Matte; Domenico Mattoscio; José L Mauriz; Mario Mauthe; Caroline Mauvezin; Emanual Maverakis; Paola Maycotte; Johanna Mayer; Gianluigi Mazzoccoli; Cristina Mazzoni; Joseph R Mazzulli; Nami McCarty; Christine McDonald; Mitchell R McGill; Sharon L McKenna; BethAnn McLaughlin; Fionn McLoughlin; Mark A McNiven; Thomas G McWilliams; Fatima Mechta-Grigoriou; Tania Catarina Medeiros; Diego L Medina; Lynn A Megeney; Klara Megyeri; Maryam Mehrpour; Jawahar L Mehta; Alfred J Meijer; Annemarie H Meijer; Jakob Mejlvang; Alicia Meléndez; Annette Melk; Gonen Memisoglu; Alexandrina F Mendes; Delong Meng; Fei Meng; Tian Meng; Rubem Menna-Barreto; Manoj B Menon; Carol Mercer; Anne E Mercier; Jean-Louis Mergny; Adalberto Merighi; Seth D Merkley; Giuseppe Merla; Volker Meske; Ana Cecilia Mestre; Shree Padma Metur; Christian Meyer; Hemmo Meyer; Wenyi Mi; Jeanne Mialet-Perez; Junying Miao; Lucia Micale; Yasuo Miki; Enrico Milan; Małgorzata Milczarek; Dana L Miller; Samuel I Miller; Silke Miller; Steven W Millward; Ira Milosevic; Elena A Minina; Hamed Mirzaei; Hamid Reza Mirzaei; Mehdi Mirzaei; Amit Mishra; Nandita Mishra; Paras Kumar Mishra; Maja Misirkic Marjanovic; Roberta Misasi; Amit Misra; Gabriella Misso; Claire Mitchell; Geraldine Mitou; Tetsuji Miura; Shigeki Miyamoto; Makoto Miyazaki; Mitsunori Miyazaki; Taiga Miyazaki; Keisuke Miyazawa; Noboru Mizushima; Trine H Mogensen; Baharia Mograbi; Reza Mohammadinejad; Yasir Mohamud; Abhishek Mohanty; Sipra Mohapatra; Torsten Möhlmann; Asif Mohmmed; Anna Moles; Kelle H Moley; Maurizio Molinari; Vincenzo Mollace; Andreas Buch Møller; Bertrand Mollereau; Faustino Mollinedo; Costanza Montagna; Mervyn J Monteiro; Andrea Montella; L Ruth Montes; Barbara Montico; Vinod K Mony; Giacomo Monzio Compagnoni; Michael N Moore; Mohammad A Moosavi; Ana L Mora; Marina Mora; David Morales-Alamo; Rosario Moratalla; Paula I Moreira; Elena Morelli; Sandra Moreno; Daniel Moreno-Blas; Viviana Moresi; Benjamin Morga; Alwena H Morgan; Fabrice Morin; Hideaki Morishita; Orson L Moritz; Mariko Moriyama; Yuji Moriyasu; Manuela Morleo; Eugenia Morselli; Jose F Moruno-Manchon; Jorge Moscat; Serge Mostowy; Elisa Motori; Andrea Felinto Moura; Naima Moustaid-Moussa; Maria Mrakovcic; Gabriel Muciño-Hernández; Anupam Mukherjee; Subhadip Mukhopadhyay; Jean M Mulcahy Levy; Victoriano Mulero; Sylviane Muller; Christian Münch; Ashok Munjal; Pura Munoz-Canoves; Teresa Muñoz-Galdeano; Christian Münz; Tomokazu Murakawa; Claudia Muratori; Brona M Murphy; J Patrick Murphy; Aditya Murthy; Timo T Myöhänen; Indira U Mysorekar; Jennifer Mytych; Seyed Mohammad Nabavi; Massimo Nabissi; Péter Nagy; Jihoon Nah; Aimable Nahimana; Ichiro Nakagawa; Ken Nakamura; Hitoshi Nakatogawa; Shyam S Nandi; Meera Nanjundan; Monica Nanni; Gennaro Napolitano; Roberta Nardacci; Masashi Narita; Melissa Nassif; Ilana Nathan; Manabu Natsumeda; Ryno J Naude; Christin Naumann; Olaia Naveiras; Fatemeh Navid; Steffan T Nawrocki; Taras Y Nazarko; Francesca Nazio; Florentina Negoita; Thomas Neill; Amanda L Neisch; Luca M Neri; Mihai G Netea; Patrick Neubert; Thomas P Neufeld; Dietbert Neumann; Albert Neutzner; Phillip T Newton; Paul A Ney; Ioannis P Nezis; Charlene C W Ng; Tzi Bun Ng; Hang T T Nguyen; Long T Nguyen; Hong-Min Ni; Clíona Ní Cheallaigh; Zhenhong Ni; M Celeste Nicolao; Francesco Nicoli; Manuel Nieto-Diaz; Per Nilsson; Shunbin Ning; Rituraj Niranjan; Hiroshi Nishimune; Mireia Niso-Santano; Ralph A Nixon; Annalisa Nobili; Clevio Nobrega; Takeshi Noda; Uxía Nogueira-Recalde; Trevor M Nolan; Ivan Nombela; Ivana Novak; Beatriz Novoa; Takashi Nozawa; Nobuyuki Nukina; Carmen Nussbaum-Krammer; Jesper Nylandsted; Tracey R O'Donovan; Seónadh M O'Leary; Eyleen J O'Rourke; Mary P O'Sullivan; Timothy E O'Sullivan; Salvatore Oddo; Ina Oehme; Michinaga Ogawa; Eric Ogier-Denis; Margret H Ogmundsdottir; Besim Ogretmen; Goo Taeg Oh; Seon-Hee Oh; Young J Oh; Takashi Ohama; Yohei Ohashi; Masaki Ohmuraya; Vasileios Oikonomou; Rani Ojha; Koji Okamoto; Hitoshi Okazawa; Masahide Oku; Sara Oliván; Jorge M A Oliveira; Michael Ollmann; James A Olzmann; Shakib Omari; M Bishr Omary; Gizem Önal; Martin Ondrej; Sang-Bing Ong; Sang-Ging Ong; Anna Onnis; Juan A Orellana; Sara Orellana-Muñoz; Maria Del Mar Ortega-Villaizan; Xilma R Ortiz-Gonzalez; Elena Ortona; Heinz D Osiewacz; Abdel-Hamid K Osman; Rosario Osta; Marisa S Otegui; Kinya Otsu; Christiane Ott; Luisa Ottobrini; Jing-Hsiung James Ou; Tiago F Outeiro; Inger Oynebraten; Melek Ozturk; Gilles Pagès; Susanta Pahari; Marta Pajares; Utpal B Pajvani; Rituraj Pal; Simona Paladino; Nicolas Pallet; Michela Palmieri; Giuseppe Palmisano; Camilla Palumbo; Francesco Pampaloni; Lifeng Pan; Qingjun Pan; Wenliang Pan; Xin Pan; Ganna Panasyuk; Rahul Pandey; Udai B Pandey; Vrajesh Pandya; Francesco Paneni; Shirley Y Pang; Elisa Panzarini; Daniela L Papademetrio; Elena Papaleo; Daniel Papinski; Diana Papp; Eun Chan Park; Hwan Tae Park; Ji-Man Park; Jong-In Park; Joon Tae Park; Junsoo Park; Sang Chul Park; Sang-Youel Park; Abraham H Parola; Jan B Parys; Adrien Pasquier; Benoit Pasquier; João F Passos; Nunzia Pastore; Hemal H Patel; Daniel Patschan; Sophie Pattingre; Gustavo Pedraza-Alva; Jose Pedraza-Chaverri; Zully Pedrozo; Gang Pei; Jianming Pei; Hadas Peled-Zehavi; Joaquín M Pellegrini; Joffrey Pelletier; Miguel A Peñalva; Di Peng; Ying Peng; Fabio Penna; Maria Pennuto; Francesca Pentimalli; Cláudia Mf Pereira; Gustavo J S Pereira; Lilian C Pereira; Luis Pereira de Almeida; Nirma D Perera; Ángel Pérez-Lara; Ana B Perez-Oliva; María Esther Pérez-Pérez; Palsamy Periyasamy; Andras Perl; Cristiana Perrotta; Ida Perrotta; Richard G Pestell; Morten Petersen; Irina Petrache; Goran Petrovski; Thorsten Pfirrmann; Astrid S Pfister; Jennifer A Philips; Huifeng Pi; Anna Picca; Alicia M Pickrell; Sandy Picot; Giovanna M Pierantoni; Marina Pierdominici; Philippe Pierre; Valérie Pierrefite-Carle; Karolina Pierzynowska; Federico Pietrocola; Miroslawa Pietruczuk; Claudio Pignata; Felipe X Pimentel-Muiños; Mario Pinar; Roberta O Pinheiro; Ronit Pinkas-Kramarski; Paolo Pinton; Karolina Pircs; Sujan Piya; Paola Pizzo; Theo S Plantinga; Harald W Platta; Ainhoa Plaza-Zabala; Markus Plomann; Egor Y Plotnikov; Helene Plun-Favreau; Ryszard Pluta; Roger Pocock; Stefanie Pöggeler; Christian Pohl; Marc Poirot; Angelo Poletti; Marisa Ponpuak; Hana Popelka; Blagovesta Popova; Helena Porta; Soledad Porte Alcon; Eliana Portilla-Fernandez; Martin Post; Malia B Potts; Joanna Poulton; Ted Powers; Veena Prahlad; Tomasz K Prajsnar; Domenico Praticò; Rosaria Prencipe; Muriel Priault; Tassula Proikas-Cezanne; Vasilis J Promponas; Christopher G Proud; Rosa Puertollano; Luigi Puglielli; Thomas Pulinilkunnil; Deepika Puri; Rajat Puri; Julien Puyal; Xiaopeng Qi; Yongmei Qi; Wenbin Qian; Lei Qiang; Yu Qiu; Joe Quadrilatero; Jorge Quarleri; Nina Raben; Hannah Rabinowich; Debora Ragona; Michael J Ragusa; Nader Rahimi; Marveh Rahmati; Valeria Raia; Nuno Raimundo; Namakkal-Soorappan Rajasekaran; Sriganesh Ramachandra Rao; Abdelhaq Rami; Ignacio Ramírez-Pardo; David B Ramsden; Felix Randow; Pundi N Rangarajan; Danilo Ranieri; Hai Rao; Lang Rao; Rekha Rao; Sumit Rathore; J Arjuna Ratnayaka; Edward A Ratovitski; Palaniyandi Ravanan; Gloria Ravegnini; Swapan K Ray; Babak Razani; Vito Rebecca; Fulvio Reggiori; Anne Régnier-Vigouroux; Andreas S Reichert; David Reigada; Jan H Reiling; Theo Rein; Siegfried Reipert; Rokeya Sultana Rekha; Hongmei Ren; Jun Ren; Weichao Ren; Tristan Renault; Giorgia Renga; Karen Reue; Kim Rewitz; Bruna Ribeiro de Andrade Ramos; S Amer Riazuddin; Teresa M Ribeiro-Rodrigues; Jean-Ehrland Ricci; Romeo Ricci; Victoria Riccio; Des R Richardson; Yasuko Rikihisa; Makarand V Risbud; Ruth M Risueño; Konstantinos Ritis; Salvatore Rizza; Rosario Rizzuto; Helen C Roberts; Luke D Roberts; Katherine J Robinson; Maria Carmela Roccheri; Stephane Rocchi; George G Rodney; Tiago Rodrigues; Vagner Ramon Rodrigues Silva; Amaia Rodriguez; Ruth Rodriguez-Barrueco; Nieves Rodriguez-Henche; Humberto Rodriguez-Rocha; Jeroen Roelofs; Robert S Rogers; Vladimir V Rogov; Ana I Rojo; Krzysztof Rolka; Vanina Romanello; Luigina Romani; Alessandra Romano; Patricia S Romano; David Romeo-Guitart; Luis C Romero; Montserrat Romero; Joseph C Roney; Christopher Rongo; Sante Roperto; Mathias T Rosenfeldt; Philip Rosenstiel; Anne G Rosenwald; Kevin A Roth; Lynn Roth; Steven Roth; Kasper M A Rouschop; 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Alberto Sanz; Pascual Sanz; Shweta Saran; Marco Sardiello; Timothy J Sargeant; Apurva Sarin; Chinmoy Sarkar; Sovan Sarkar; Maria-Rosa Sarrias; Surajit Sarkar; Dipanka Tanu Sarmah; Jaakko Sarparanta; Aishwarya Sathyanarayan; Ranganayaki Sathyanarayanan; K Matthew Scaglione; Francesca Scatozza; Liliana Schaefer; Zachary T Schafer; Ulrich E Schaible; Anthony H V Schapira; Michael Scharl; Hermann M Schatzl; Catherine H Schein; Wiep Scheper; David Scheuring; Maria Vittoria Schiaffino; Monica Schiappacassi; Rainer Schindl; Uwe Schlattner; Oliver Schmidt; Roland Schmitt; Stephen D Schmidt; Ingo Schmitz; Eran Schmukler; Anja Schneider; Bianca E Schneider; Romana Schober; Alejandra C Schoijet; Micah B Schott; Michael Schramm; Bernd Schröder; Kai Schuh; Christoph Schüller; Ryan J Schulze; Lea Schürmanns; Jens C Schwamborn; Melanie Schwarten; Filippo Scialo; Sebastiano Sciarretta; Melanie J Scott; Kathleen W Scotto; A Ivana Scovassi; Andrea Scrima; Aurora Scrivo; David Sebastian; Salwa Sebti; Simon Sedej; 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Bruno J de Andrade Silva; Johnatas D Silva; Eduardo Silva-Pavez; Sandrine Silvente-Poirot; Rachel E Simmonds; Anna Katharina Simon; Hans-Uwe Simon; Matias Simons; Anurag Singh; Lalit P Singh; Rajat Singh; Shivendra V Singh; Shrawan K Singh; Sudha B Singh; Sunaina Singh; Surinder Pal Singh; Debasish Sinha; Rohit Anthony Sinha; Sangita Sinha; Agnieszka Sirko; Kapil Sirohi; Efthimios L Sivridis; Panagiotis Skendros; Aleksandra Skirycz; Iva Slaninová; Soraya S Smaili; Andrei Smertenko; Matthew D Smith; Stefaan J Soenen; Eun Jung Sohn; Sophia P M Sok; Giancarlo Solaini; Thierry Soldati; Scott A Soleimanpour; Rosa M Soler; Alexei Solovchenko; Jason A Somarelli; Avinash Sonawane; Fuyong Song; Hyun Kyu Song; Ju-Xian Song; Kunhua Song; Zhiyin Song; Leandro R Soria; Maurizio Sorice; Alexander A Soukas; Sandra-Fausia Soukup; Diana Sousa; Nadia Sousa; Paul A Spagnuolo; Stephen A Spector; M M Srinivas Bharath; Daret St Clair; Venturina Stagni; Leopoldo Staiano; Clint A Stalnecker; Metodi V Stankov; 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Motomasa Tanaka; Daolin Tang; Jingfeng Tang; Tie-Shan Tang; Isei Tanida; Zhipeng Tao; Mohammed Taouis; Lars Tatenhorst; Nektarios Tavernarakis; Allen Taylor; Gregory A Taylor; Joan M Taylor; Elena Tchetina; Andrew R Tee; Irmgard Tegeder; David Teis; Natercia Teixeira; Fatima Teixeira-Clerc; Kumsal A Tekirdag; Tewin Tencomnao; Sandra Tenreiro; Alexei V Tepikin; Pilar S Testillano; Gianluca Tettamanti; Pierre-Louis Tharaux; Kathrin Thedieck; Arvind A Thekkinghat; Stefano Thellung; Josephine W Thinwa; V P Thirumalaikumar; Sufi Mary Thomas; Paul G Thomes; Andrew Thorburn; Lipi Thukral; Thomas Thum; Michael Thumm; Ling Tian; Ales Tichy; Andreas Till; Vincent Timmerman; Vladimir I Titorenko; Sokol V Todi; Krassimira Todorova; Janne M Toivonen; Luana Tomaipitinca; Dhanendra Tomar; Cristina Tomas-Zapico; Sergej Tomić; Benjamin Chun-Kit Tong; Chao Tong; Xin Tong; Sharon A Tooze; Maria L Torgersen; Satoru Torii; Liliana Torres-López; Alicia Torriglia; Christina G Towers; Roberto Towns; Shinya Toyokuni; Vladimir Trajkovic; Donatella Tramontano; Quynh-Giao Tran; Leonardo H Travassos; Charles B Trelford; Shirley Tremel; Ioannis P Trougakos; Betty P Tsao; Mario P Tschan; Hung-Fat Tse; Tak Fu Tse; Hitoshi Tsugawa; Andrey S Tsvetkov; David A Tumbarello; Yasin Tumtas; María J Tuñón; Sandra Turcotte; Boris Turk; Vito Turk; Bradley J Turner; Richard I Tuxworth; Jessica K Tyler; Elena V Tyutereva; Yasuo Uchiyama; Aslihan Ugun-Klusek; Holm H Uhlig; Marzena Ułamek-Kozioł; Ilya V Ulasov; Midori Umekawa; Christian Ungermann; Rei Unno; Sylvie Urbe; Elisabet Uribe-Carretero; Suayib Üstün; Vladimir N Uversky; Thomas Vaccari; Maria I Vaccaro; Björn F Vahsen; Helin Vakifahmetoglu-Norberg; Rut Valdor; Maria J Valente; Ayelén Valko; Richard B Vallee; Angela M Valverde; Greet Van den Berghe; Stijn van der Veen; Luc Van Kaer; Jorg van Loosdregt; Sjoerd J L van Wijk; Wim Vandenberghe; Ilse Vanhorebeek; Marcos A Vannier-Santos; Nicola Vannini; M Cristina Vanrell; Chiara Vantaggiato; Gabriele Varano; Isabel Varela-Nieto; Máté Varga; M Helena Vasconcelos; Somya Vats; Demetrios G Vavvas; Ignacio Vega-Naredo; Silvia Vega-Rubin-de-Celis; Guillermo Velasco; Ariadna P Velázquez; Tibor Vellai; Edo Vellenga; Francesca Velotti; Mireille Verdier; Panayotis Verginis; Isabelle Vergne; Paul Verkade; Manish Verma; Patrik Verstreken; Tim Vervliet; Jörg Vervoorts; Alexandre T Vessoni; Victor M Victor; Michel Vidal; Chiara Vidoni; Otilia V Vieira; Richard D Vierstra; Sonia Viganó; Helena Vihinen; Vinoy Vijayan; Miquel Vila; Marçal Vilar; José M Villalba; Antonio Villalobo; Beatriz Villarejo-Zori; Francesc Villarroya; Joan Villarroya; Olivier Vincent; Cecile Vindis; Christophe Viret; Maria Teresa Viscomi; Dora Visnjic; Ilio Vitale; David J Vocadlo; Olga V Voitsekhovskaja; Cinzia Volonté; Mattia Volta; Marta Vomero; Clarissa Von Haefen; Marc A Vooijs; Wolfgang Voos; Ljubica Vucicevic; Richard Wade-Martins; Satoshi Waguri; Kenrick A Waite; Shuji Wakatsuki; David W Walker; Mark J Walker; Simon A Walker; Jochen Walter; Francisco G Wandosell; Bo Wang; Chao-Yung Wang; Chen Wang; Chenran Wang; Chenwei Wang; Cun-Yu Wang; Dong Wang; Fangyang Wang; Feng Wang; Fengming Wang; Guansong Wang; Han Wang; Hao Wang; Hexiang Wang; Hong-Gang Wang; Jianrong Wang; Jigang Wang; Jiou Wang; Jundong Wang; Kui Wang; Lianrong Wang; Liming Wang; Maggie Haitian Wang; Meiqing Wang; Nanbu Wang; Pengwei Wang; Peipei Wang; Ping Wang; Ping Wang; Qing Jun Wang; Qing Wang; Qing Kenneth Wang; Qiong A Wang; Wen-Tao Wang; Wuyang Wang; Xinnan Wang; Xuejun Wang; Yan Wang; Yanchang Wang; Yanzhuang Wang; Yen-Yun Wang; Yihua Wang; Yipeng Wang; Yu Wang; Yuqi Wang; Zhe Wang; Zhenyu Wang; Zhouguang Wang; Gary Warnes; Verena Warnsmann; Hirotaka Watada; Eizo Watanabe; Maxinne Watchon; Anna Wawrzyńska; Timothy E Weaver; Grzegorz Wegrzyn; Ann M Wehman; Huafeng Wei; Lei Wei; Taotao Wei; Yongjie Wei; Oliver H Weiergräber; Conrad C Weihl; Günther Weindl; Ralf Weiskirchen; Alan Wells; Runxia H Wen; Xin Wen; Antonia Werner; Beatrice Weykopf; Sally P Wheatley; J Lindsay Whitton; 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Osamu Yamaguchi; Ai Yamamoto; Shunhei Yamashina; Shengmin Yan; Shian-Jang Yan; Zhen Yan; Yasuo Yanagi; Chuanbin Yang; Dun-Sheng Yang; Huan Yang; Huang-Tian Yang; Hui Yang; Jin-Ming Yang; Jing Yang; Jingyu Yang; Ling Yang; Liu Yang; Ming Yang; Pei-Ming Yang; Qian Yang; Seungwon Yang; Shu Yang; Shun-Fa Yang; Wannian Yang; Wei Yuan Yang; Xiaoyong Yang; Xuesong Yang; Yi Yang; Ying Yang; Honghong Yao; Shenggen Yao; Xiaoqiang Yao; Yong-Gang Yao; Yong-Ming Yao; Takahiro Yasui; Meysam Yazdankhah; Paul M Yen; Cong Yi; Xiao-Ming Yin; Yanhai Yin; Zhangyuan Yin; Ziyi Yin; Meidan Ying; Zheng Ying; Calvin K Yip; Stephanie Pei Tung Yiu; Young H Yoo; Kiyotsugu Yoshida; Saori R Yoshii; Tamotsu Yoshimori; Bahman Yousefi; Boxuan Yu; Haiyang Yu; Jun Yu; Jun Yu; Li Yu; Ming-Lung Yu; Seong-Woon Yu; Victor C Yu; W Haung Yu; Zhengping Yu; Zhou Yu; Junying Yuan; Ling-Qing Yuan; Shilin Yuan; Shyng-Shiou F Yuan; Yanggang Yuan; Zengqiang Yuan; Jianbo Yue; Zhenyu Yue; Jeanho Yun; Raymond L Yung; David N Zacks; Gabriele Zaffagnini; 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Xi-Long Zheng; Yi Zheng; Zu-Guo Zheng; Boris Zhivotovsky; Qing Zhong; Ao Zhou; Ben Zhou; Cefan Zhou; Gang Zhou; Hao Zhou; Hong Zhou; Hongbo Zhou; Jie Zhou; Jing Zhou; Jing Zhou; Jiyong Zhou; Kailiang Zhou; Rongjia Zhou; Xu-Jie Zhou; Yanshuang Zhou; Yinghong Zhou; Yubin Zhou; Zheng-Yu Zhou; Zhou Zhou; Binglin Zhu; Changlian Zhu; Guo-Qing Zhu; Haining Zhu; Hongxin Zhu; Hua Zhu; Wei-Guo Zhu; Yanping Zhu; Yushan Zhu; Haixia Zhuang; Xiaohong Zhuang; Katarzyna Zientara-Rytter; Christine M Zimmermann; Elena Ziviani; Teresa Zoladek; Wei-Xing Zong; Dmitry B Zorov; Antonio Zorzano; Weiping Zou; Zhen Zou; Zhengzhi Zou; Steven Zuryn; Werner Zwerschke; Beate Brand-Saberi; X Charlie Dong; Chandra Shekar Kenchappa; Zuguo Li; Yong Lin; Shigeru Oshima; Yueguang Rong; Judith C Sluimer; Christina L Stallings; Chun-Kit Tong Journal: Autophagy Date: 2021-02-08 Impact factor: 13.391
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Chun-Jung Chen; Gang Chen; Guang-Chao Chen; Guoqiang Chen; Hongzhuan Chen; Jeff W Chen; Jian-Kang Chen; Min Chen; Mingzhou Chen; Peiwen Chen; Qi Chen; Quan Chen; Shang-Der Chen; Si Chen; Steve S-L Chen; Wei Chen; Wei-Jung Chen; Wen Qiang Chen; Wenli Chen; Xiangmei Chen; Yau-Hung Chen; Ye-Guang Chen; Yin Chen; Yingyu Chen; Yongshun Chen; Yu-Jen Chen; Yue-Qin Chen; Yujie Chen; Zhen Chen; Zhong Chen; Alan Cheng; Christopher Hk Cheng; Hua Cheng; Heesun Cheong; Sara Cherry; Jason Chesney; Chun Hei Antonio Cheung; Eric Chevet; Hsiang Cheng Chi; Sung-Gil Chi; Fulvio Chiacchiera; Hui-Ling Chiang; Roberto Chiarelli; Mario Chiariello; Marcello Chieppa; Lih-Shen Chin; Mario Chiong; Gigi Nc Chiu; Dong-Hyung Cho; Ssang-Goo Cho; William C Cho; Yong-Yeon Cho; Young-Seok Cho; Augustine Mk Choi; Eui-Ju Choi; Eun-Kyoung Choi; Jayoung Choi; Mary E Choi; Seung-Il Choi; Tsui-Fen Chou; Salem Chouaib; Divaker Choubey; Vinay Choubey; Kuan-Chih Chow; Kamal Chowdhury; Charleen T Chu; Tsung-Hsien Chuang; Taehoon Chun; 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Nelly Godefroy; Robert M Gogal; Kuppan Gokulan; Gustavo H Goldman; Delia Goletti; Michael S Goligorsky; Aldrin V Gomes; Ligia C Gomes; Hernando Gomez; Candelaria Gomez-Manzano; Rubén Gómez-Sánchez; Dawit Ap Gonçalves; Ebru Goncu; Qingqiu Gong; Céline Gongora; Carlos B Gonzalez; Pedro Gonzalez-Alegre; Pilar Gonzalez-Cabo; Rosa Ana González-Polo; Ing Swie Goping; Carlos Gorbea; Nikolai V Gorbunov; Daphne R Goring; Adrienne M Gorman; Sharon M Gorski; Sandro Goruppi; Shino Goto-Yamada; Cecilia Gotor; Roberta A Gottlieb; Illana Gozes; Devrim Gozuacik; Yacine Graba; Martin Graef; Giovanna E Granato; Gary Dean Grant; Steven Grant; Giovanni Luca Gravina; Douglas R Green; Alexander Greenhough; Michael T Greenwood; Benedetto Grimaldi; Frédéric Gros; Charles Grose; Jean-Francois Groulx; Florian Gruber; Paolo Grumati; Tilman Grune; Jun-Lin Guan; Kun-Liang Guan; Barbara Guerra; Carlos Guillen; Kailash Gulshan; Jan Gunst; Chuanyong Guo; Lei Guo; Ming Guo; Wenjie Guo; Xu-Guang Guo; Andrea A Gust; Åsa B Gustafsson; Elaine Gutierrez; Maximiliano G Gutierrez; Ho-Shin Gwak; Albert Haas; James E Haber; Shinji Hadano; Monica Hagedorn; David R Hahn; Andrew J Halayko; Anne Hamacher-Brady; Kozo Hamada; Ahmed Hamai; Andrea Hamann; Maho Hamasaki; Isabelle Hamer; Qutayba Hamid; Ester M Hammond; Feng Han; Weidong Han; James T Handa; John A Hanover; Malene Hansen; Masaru Harada; Ljubica Harhaji-Trajkovic; J Wade Harper; Abdel Halim Harrath; Adrian L Harris; James Harris; Udo Hasler; Peter Hasselblatt; Kazuhisa Hasui; Robert G Hawley; Teresa S Hawley; Congcong He; Cynthia Y He; Fengtian He; Gu He; Rong-Rong He; Xian-Hui He; You-Wen He; Yu-Ying He; Joan K Heath; Marie-Josée Hébert; Robert A Heinzen; Gudmundur Vignir Helgason; Michael Hensel; Elizabeth P Henske; Chengtao Her; Paul K Herman; Agustín Hernández; Carlos Hernandez; Sonia Hernández-Tiedra; Claudio Hetz; P Robin Hiesinger; Katsumi Higaki; Sabine Hilfiker; Bradford G Hill; Joseph A Hill; William D Hill; Keisuke Hino; Daniel Hofius; Paul Hofman; Günter U Höglinger; Jörg Höhfeld; Marina K Holz; Yonggeun Hong; David A Hood; Jeroen Jm Hoozemans; Thorsten Hoppe; Chin Hsu; Chin-Yuan Hsu; Li-Chung Hsu; Dong Hu; Guochang Hu; Hong-Ming Hu; Hongbo Hu; Ming Chang Hu; Yu-Chen Hu; Zhuo-Wei Hu; Fang Hua; Ya Hua; Canhua Huang; Huey-Lan Huang; Kuo-How Huang; Kuo-Yang Huang; Shile Huang; Shiqian Huang; Wei-Pang Huang; Yi-Ran Huang; Yong Huang; Yunfei Huang; Tobias B Huber; Patricia Huebbe; Won-Ki Huh; Juha J Hulmi; Gang Min Hur; James H Hurley; Zvenyslava Husak; Sabah Na Hussain; Salik Hussain; Jung Jin Hwang; Seungmin Hwang; Thomas Is Hwang; Atsuhiro Ichihara; Yuzuru Imai; Carol Imbriano; Megumi Inomata; Takeshi Into; Valentina Iovane; Juan L Iovanna; Renato V Iozzo; Nancy Y Ip; Javier E Irazoqui; Pablo Iribarren; Yoshitaka Isaka; Aleksandra J Isakovic; Harry Ischiropoulos; Jeffrey S Isenberg; Mohammad Ishaq; Hiroyuki Ishida; Isao Ishii; Jane E Ishmael; Ciro Isidoro; Ken-Ichi Isobe; Erika Isono; Shohreh Issazadeh-Navikas; Koji Itahana; Eisuke Itakura; Andrei I Ivanov; Anand Krishnan V Iyer; José M Izquierdo; Yotaro Izumi; Valentina Izzo; Marja Jäättelä; Nadia Jaber; Daniel John Jackson; William T Jackson; Tony George Jacob; Thomas S Jacques; Chinnaswamy Jagannath; Ashish Jain; Nihar Ranjan Jana; Byoung Kuk Jang; Alkesh Jani; Bassam Janji; Paulo Roberto Jannig; Patric J Jansson; Steve Jean; Marina Jendrach; Ju-Hong Jeon; Niels Jessen; Eui-Bae Jeung; Kailiang Jia; Lijun Jia; Hong Jiang; Hongchi Jiang; Liwen Jiang; Teng Jiang; Xiaoyan Jiang; Xuejun Jiang; Xuejun Jiang; Ying Jiang; Yongjun Jiang; Alberto Jiménez; Cheng Jin; Hongchuan Jin; Lei Jin; Meiyan Jin; Shengkan Jin; Umesh Kumar Jinwal; Eun-Kyeong Jo; Terje Johansen; Daniel E Johnson; Gail Vw Johnson; James D Johnson; Eric Jonasch; Chris Jones; Leo Ab Joosten; Joaquin Jordan; Anna-Maria Joseph; Bertrand Joseph; Annie M Joubert; Dianwen Ju; Jingfang Ju; Hsueh-Fen Juan; Katrin Juenemann; Gábor Juhász; Hye Seung Jung; Jae U Jung; Yong-Keun Jung; Heinz Jungbluth; Matthew J Justice; Barry Jutten; Nadeem O Kaakoush; Kai Kaarniranta; Allen Kaasik; Tomohiro Kabuta; Bertrand Kaeffer; Katarina Kågedal; Alon Kahana; Shingo Kajimura; Or Kakhlon; Manjula Kalia; Dhan V Kalvakolanu; Yoshiaki Kamada; Konstantinos Kambas; Vitaliy O Kaminskyy; Harm H Kampinga; Mustapha Kandouz; Chanhee Kang; Rui Kang; Tae-Cheon Kang; Tomotake Kanki; Thirumala-Devi Kanneganti; Haruo Kanno; Anumantha G Kanthasamy; Marc Kantorow; Maria Kaparakis-Liaskos; Orsolya Kapuy; Vassiliki Karantza; Md Razaul Karim; Parimal Karmakar; Arthur Kaser; Susmita Kaushik; Thomas Kawula; A Murat Kaynar; Po-Yuan Ke; Zun-Ji Ke; John H Kehrl; Kate E Keller; Jongsook Kim Kemper; Anne K Kenworthy; Oliver Kepp; Andreas Kern; Santosh Kesari; David Kessel; Robin Ketteler; Isis do Carmo Kettelhut; Bilon Khambu; Muzamil Majid Khan; Vinoth Km Khandelwal; Sangeeta Khare; Juliann G Kiang; Amy A Kiger; Akio Kihara; Arianna L Kim; Cheol Hyeon Kim; Deok Ryong Kim; Do-Hyung Kim; Eung Kweon Kim; Hye Young Kim; Hyung-Ryong Kim; Jae-Sung Kim; Jeong Hun Kim; Jin Cheon Kim; Jin Hyoung Kim; Kwang Woon Kim; Michael D Kim; Moon-Moo Kim; Peter K Kim; Seong Who Kim; Soo-Youl Kim; Yong-Sun Kim; Yonghyun Kim; Adi Kimchi; Alec C Kimmelman; Tomonori Kimura; Jason S King; Karla Kirkegaard; Vladimir Kirkin; Lorrie A Kirshenbaum; Shuji Kishi; Yasuo Kitajima; Katsuhiko Kitamoto; Yasushi Kitaoka; Kaio Kitazato; Rudolf A Kley; Walter T Klimecki; Michael Klinkenberg; Jochen Klucken; Helene Knævelsrud; Erwin Knecht; Laura Knuppertz; Jiunn-Liang Ko; Satoru Kobayashi; Jan C Koch; Christelle Koechlin-Ramonatxo; Ulrich Koenig; Young Ho Koh; Katja Köhler; Sepp D Kohlwein; Masato Koike; Masaaki Komatsu; Eiki Kominami; Dexin Kong; Hee Jeong Kong; Eumorphia G Konstantakou; Benjamin T Kopp; Tamas Korcsmaros; Laura Korhonen; Viktor I Korolchuk; Nadya V Koshkina; Yanjun Kou; Michael I Koukourakis; Constantinos Koumenis; Attila L Kovács; Tibor Kovács; Werner J Kovacs; Daisuke Koya; Claudine Kraft; Dimitri Krainc; Helmut Kramer; Tamara Kravic-Stevovic; Wilhelm Krek; Carole Kretz-Remy; Roswitha Krick; Malathi Krishnamurthy; Janos Kriston-Vizi; Guido Kroemer; Michael C Kruer; Rejko Kruger; Nicholas T Ktistakis; Kazuyuki Kuchitsu; Christian Kuhn; Addanki Pratap Kumar; Anuj Kumar; Ashok Kumar; Deepak Kumar; Dhiraj Kumar; Rakesh Kumar; Sharad Kumar; Mondira Kundu; Hsing-Jien Kung; Atsushi Kuno; Sheng-Han Kuo; Jeff Kuret; Tino Kurz; Terry Kwok; Taeg Kyu Kwon; Yong Tae Kwon; Irene Kyrmizi; Albert R La Spada; Frank Lafont; Tim Lahm; Aparna Lakkaraju; Truong Lam; Trond Lamark; Steve Lancel; Terry H Landowski; Darius J R Lane; Jon D Lane; Cinzia Lanzi; Pierre Lapaquette; Louis R Lapierre; Jocelyn Laporte; Johanna Laukkarinen; Gordon W Laurie; Sergio Lavandero; Lena Lavie; Matthew J LaVoie; Betty Yuen Kwan Law; Helen Ka-Wai Law; Kelsey B Law; Robert Layfield; Pedro A Lazo; Laurent Le Cam; Karine G Le Roch; Hervé Le Stunff; Vijittra Leardkamolkarn; Marc Lecuit; Byung-Hoon Lee; Che-Hsin Lee; Erinna F Lee; Gyun Min Lee; He-Jin Lee; Hsinyu Lee; Jae Keun Lee; Jongdae Lee; Ju-Hyun Lee; Jun Hee Lee; Michael Lee; Myung-Shik Lee; Patty J Lee; Sam W Lee; Seung-Jae Lee; Shiow-Ju Lee; Stella Y Lee; Sug Hyung Lee; Sung Sik Lee; Sung-Joon Lee; Sunhee Lee; Ying-Ray Lee; Yong J Lee; Young H Lee; Christiaan Leeuwenburgh; Sylvain Lefort; Renaud Legouis; Jinzhi Lei; Qun-Ying Lei; David A Leib; Gil Leibowitz; Istvan Lekli; Stéphane D Lemaire; John J Lemasters; Marius K Lemberg; Antoinette Lemoine; Shuilong Leng; Guido Lenz; Paola Lenzi; Lilach O Lerman; Daniele Lettieri Barbato; Julia I-Ju Leu; Hing Y Leung; Beth Levine; Patrick A Lewis; Frank Lezoualc'h; Chi Li; Faqiang Li; Feng-Jun Li; Jun Li; Ke Li; Lian Li; Min Li; Min Li; Qiang Li; Rui Li; Sheng Li; Wei Li; Wei Li; Xiaotao Li; Yumin Li; Jiqin Lian; Chengyu Liang; Qiangrong Liang; Yulin Liao; Joana Liberal; Pawel P Liberski; Pearl Lie; Andrew P Lieberman; Hyunjung Jade Lim; Kah-Leong Lim; Kyu Lim; Raquel T Lima; Chang-Shen Lin; Chiou-Feng Lin; Fang Lin; Fangming Lin; Fu-Cheng Lin; Kui Lin; Kwang-Huei Lin; Pei-Hui Lin; Tianwei Lin; Wan-Wan Lin; Yee-Shin Lin; Yong Lin; Rafael Linden; Dan Lindholm; Lisa M Lindqvist; Paul Lingor; Andreas Linkermann; Lance A Liotta; Marta M Lipinski; Vitor A Lira; Michael P Lisanti; Paloma B Liton; Bo Liu; Chong Liu; Chun-Feng Liu; Fei Liu; Hung-Jen Liu; Jianxun Liu; Jing-Jing Liu; Jing-Lan Liu; Ke Liu; Leyuan Liu; Liang Liu; Quentin Liu; Rong-Yu Liu; Shiming Liu; Shuwen Liu; Wei Liu; Xian-De Liu; Xiangguo Liu; Xiao-Hong Liu; Xinfeng Liu; Xu Liu; Xueqin Liu; Yang Liu; Yule Liu; Zexian Liu; Zhe Liu; Juan P Liuzzi; Gérard Lizard; Mila Ljujic; Irfan J Lodhi; Susan E Logue; Bal L Lokeshwar; Yun Chau Long; Sagar Lonial; Benjamin Loos; Carlos López-Otín; Cristina López-Vicario; Mar Lorente; Philip L Lorenzi; Péter Lõrincz; Marek Los; Michael T Lotze; Penny E Lovat; Binfeng Lu; Bo Lu; Jiahong Lu; Qing Lu; She-Min Lu; Shuyan Lu; Yingying Lu; Frédéric Luciano; Shirley Luckhart; John Milton Lucocq; Paula Ludovico; Aurelia Lugea; Nicholas W Lukacs; Julian J Lum; Anders H Lund; Honglin Luo; Jia Luo; Shouqing Luo; Claudio Luparello; Timothy Lyons; Jianjie Ma; Yi Ma; Yong Ma; Zhenyi Ma; Juliano Machado; Glaucia M Machado-Santelli; Fernando Macian; Gustavo C MacIntosh; Jeffrey P MacKeigan; Kay F Macleod; John D MacMicking; Lee Ann MacMillan-Crow; Frank Madeo; Muniswamy Madesh; Julio Madrigal-Matute; Akiko Maeda; Tatsuya Maeda; Gustavo Maegawa; Emilia Maellaro; Hannelore Maes; Marta Magariños; Kenneth Maiese; Tapas K Maiti; Luigi Maiuri; Maria Chiara Maiuri; Carl G Maki; Roland Malli; Walter Malorni; Alina Maloyan; Fathia Mami-Chouaib; Na Man; Joseph D Mancias; Eva-Maria Mandelkow; Michael A Mandell; Angelo A Manfredi; Serge N Manié; Claudia Manzoni; Kai Mao; Zixu Mao; Zong-Wan Mao; Philippe Marambaud; Anna Maria Marconi; Zvonimir Marelja; Gabriella Marfe; Marta Margeta; Eva Margittai; Muriel Mari; Francesca V Mariani; Concepcio Marin; Sara Marinelli; Guillermo Mariño; Ivanka Markovic; Rebecca Marquez; Alberto M Martelli; Sascha Martens; Katie R Martin; Seamus J Martin; Shaun Martin; Miguel A Martin-Acebes; Paloma Martín-Sanz; Camille Martinand-Mari; Wim Martinet; Jennifer Martinez; Nuria Martinez-Lopez; Ubaldo Martinez-Outschoorn; Moisés Martínez-Velázquez; Marta Martinez-Vicente; Waleska Kerllen Martins; Hirosato Mashima; James A Mastrianni; Giuseppe Matarese; Paola Matarrese; Roberto Mateo; Satoaki Matoba; Naomichi Matsumoto; Takehiko Matsushita; Akira Matsuura; Takeshi Matsuzawa; Mark P Mattson; Soledad Matus; Norma Maugeri; Caroline Mauvezin; Andreas Mayer; Dusica Maysinger; Guillermo D Mazzolini; Mary Kate McBrayer; Kimberly McCall; Craig McCormick; Gerald M McInerney; Skye C McIver; Sharon McKenna; John J McMahon; Iain A McNeish; Fatima Mechta-Grigoriou; Jan Paul Medema; Diego L Medina; Klara Megyeri; Maryam Mehrpour; Jawahar L Mehta; Yide Mei; Ute-Christiane Meier; Alfred J Meijer; Alicia Meléndez; Gerry Melino; Sonia Melino; Edesio Jose Tenorio de Melo; Maria A Mena; Marc D Meneghini; Javier A Menendez; Regina Menezes; Liesu Meng; Ling-Hua Meng; Songshu Meng; Rossella Menghini; A Sue Menko; Rubem Fs Menna-Barreto; Manoj B Menon; Marco A Meraz-Ríos; Giuseppe Merla; Luciano Merlini; Angelica M Merlot; Andreas Meryk; Stefania Meschini; Joel N Meyer; Man-Tian Mi; Chao-Yu Miao; Lucia Micale; Simon Michaeli; Carine Michiels; Anna Rita Migliaccio; Anastasia Susie Mihailidou; Dalibor Mijaljica; Katsuhiko Mikoshiba; Enrico Milan; Leonor Miller-Fleming; Gordon B Mills; Ian G Mills; Georgia Minakaki; Berge A Minassian; Xiu-Fen Ming; Farida Minibayeva; Elena A Minina; Justine D Mintern; Saverio Minucci; Antonio Miranda-Vizuete; Claire H Mitchell; Shigeki Miyamoto; Keisuke Miyazawa; Noboru Mizushima; Katarzyna Mnich; Baharia Mograbi; Simin Mohseni; Luis Ferreira Moita; Marco Molinari; Maurizio Molinari; Andreas Buch Møller; Bertrand Mollereau; Faustino Mollinedo; Marco Mongillo; Martha M Monick; Serena Montagnaro; Craig Montell; Darren J Moore; Michael N Moore; Rodrigo Mora-Rodriguez; Paula I Moreira; Etienne Morel; Maria Beatrice Morelli; Sandra Moreno; Michael J Morgan; Arnaud Moris; Yuji Moriyasu; Janna L Morrison; Lynda A Morrison; Eugenia Morselli; Jorge Moscat; Pope L Moseley; Serge Mostowy; Elisa Motori; Denis Mottet; Jeremy C Mottram; Charbel E-H Moussa; Vassiliki E Mpakou; Hasan Mukhtar; Jean M Mulcahy Levy; Sylviane Muller; Raquel Muñoz-Moreno; Cristina Muñoz-Pinedo; Christian Münz; Maureen E Murphy; James T Murray; Aditya Murthy; Indira U Mysorekar; Ivan R Nabi; Massimo Nabissi; Gustavo A Nader; Yukitoshi Nagahara; Yoshitaka Nagai; Kazuhiro Nagata; Anika Nagelkerke; Péter Nagy; Samisubbu R Naidu; Sreejayan Nair; Hiroyasu Nakano; Hitoshi Nakatogawa; Meera Nanjundan; Gennaro Napolitano; Naweed I Naqvi; Roberta Nardacci; Derek P Narendra; Masashi Narita; Anna Chiara Nascimbeni; Ramesh Natarajan; Luiz C Navegantes; Steffan T Nawrocki; Taras Y Nazarko; Volodymyr Y Nazarko; Thomas Neill; Luca M Neri; Mihai G Netea; Romana T Netea-Maier; Bruno M Neves; Paul A Ney; Ioannis P Nezis; Hang Tt Nguyen; Huu Phuc Nguyen; Anne-Sophie Nicot; Hilde Nilsen; Per Nilsson; Mikio Nishimura; Ichizo Nishino; Mireia Niso-Santano; Hua Niu; Ralph A Nixon; Vincent Co Njar; Takeshi Noda; Angelika A Noegel; Elsie Magdalena Nolte; Erik Norberg; Koenraad K Norga; Sakineh Kazemi Noureini; Shoji Notomi; Lucia Notterpek; Karin Nowikovsky; Nobuyuki Nukina; Thorsten Nürnberger; Valerie B O'Donnell; Tracey O'Donovan; Peter J O'Dwyer; Ina Oehme; Clara L Oeste; Michinaga Ogawa; Besim Ogretmen; Yuji Ogura; Young J Oh; Masaki Ohmuraya; Takayuki Ohshima; Rani Ojha; Koji Okamoto; Toshiro Okazaki; F Javier Oliver; Karin Ollinger; Stefan Olsson; Daniel P Orban; Paulina Ordonez; Idil Orhon; Laszlo Orosz; Eyleen J O'Rourke; Helena Orozco; Angel L Ortega; Elena Ortona; Laura D Osellame; Junko Oshima; Shigeru Oshima; Heinz D Osiewacz; Takanobu Otomo; Kinya Otsu; Jing-Hsiung James Ou; Tiago F Outeiro; Dong-Yun Ouyang; Hongjiao Ouyang; Michael Overholtzer; Michelle A Ozbun; P Hande Ozdinler; Bulent Ozpolat; Consiglia Pacelli; Paolo Paganetti; Guylène Page; Gilles Pages; Ugo Pagnini; Beata Pajak; Stephen C Pak; Karolina Pakos-Zebrucka; Nazzy Pakpour; Zdena Palková; Francesca Palladino; Kathrin Pallauf; Nicolas Pallet; Marta Palmieri; Søren R Paludan; Camilla Palumbo; Silvia Palumbo; Olatz Pampliega; Hongming Pan; Wei Pan; Theocharis Panaretakis; Aseem Pandey; Areti Pantazopoulou; Zuzana Papackova; Daniela L Papademetrio; Issidora Papassideri; Alessio Papini; Nirmala Parajuli; Julian Pardo; Vrajesh V Parekh; Giancarlo Parenti; Jong-In Park; Junsoo Park; Ohkmae K Park; Roy Parker; Rosanna Parlato; Jan B Parys; Katherine R Parzych; Jean-Max Pasquet; Benoit Pasquier; Kishore Bs Pasumarthi; Daniel Patschan; Cam Patterson; Sophie Pattingre; Scott Pattison; Arnim Pause; Hermann Pavenstädt; Flaminia Pavone; Zully Pedrozo; Fernando J Peña; Miguel A Peñalva; Mario Pende; Jianxin Peng; Fabio Penna; Josef M Penninger; Anna Pensalfini; Salvatore Pepe; Gustavo Js Pereira; Paulo C Pereira; Verónica Pérez-de la Cruz; María Esther Pérez-Pérez; Diego Pérez-Rodríguez; Dolores Pérez-Sala; Celine Perier; Andras Perl; David H Perlmutter; Ida Perrotta; Shazib Pervaiz; Maija Pesonen; Jeffrey E Pessin; Godefridus J Peters; Morten Petersen; Irina Petrache; Basil J Petrof; Goran Petrovski; James M Phang; Mauro Piacentini; Marina Pierdominici; Philippe Pierre; Valérie Pierrefite-Carle; Federico Pietrocola; Felipe X Pimentel-Muiños; Mario Pinar; Benjamin Pineda; Ronit Pinkas-Kramarski; Marcello Pinti; Paolo Pinton; Bilal Piperdi; James M Piret; Leonidas C Platanias; Harald W Platta; Edward D Plowey; Stefanie Pöggeler; Marc Poirot; Peter Polčic; Angelo Poletti; Audrey H Poon; Hana Popelka; Blagovesta Popova; Izabela Poprawa; Shibu M Poulose; Joanna Poulton; Scott K Powers; Ted Powers; Mercedes Pozuelo-Rubio; Krisna Prak; Reinhild Prange; Mark Prescott; Muriel Priault; Sharon Prince; Richard L Proia; Tassula Proikas-Cezanne; Holger Prokisch; Vasilis J Promponas; Karin Przyklenk; Rosa Puertollano; Subbiah Pugazhenthi; Luigi Puglielli; Aurora Pujol; Julien Puyal; Dohun Pyeon; Xin Qi; Wen-Bin Qian; Zheng-Hong Qin; Yu Qiu; Ziwei Qu; Joe Quadrilatero; Frederick Quinn; Nina Raben; Hannah Rabinowich; Flavia Radogna; Michael J Ragusa; Mohamed Rahmani; Komal Raina; Sasanka Ramanadham; Rajagopal Ramesh; Abdelhaq Rami; Sarron Randall-Demllo; Felix Randow; Hai Rao; V Ashutosh Rao; Blake B Rasmussen; Tobias M Rasse; Edward A Ratovitski; Pierre-Emmanuel Rautou; Swapan K Ray; Babak Razani; Bruce H Reed; Fulvio Reggiori; Markus Rehm; Andreas S Reichert; Theo Rein; David J Reiner; Eric Reits; Jun Ren; Xingcong Ren; Maurizio Renna; Jane Eb Reusch; Jose L Revuelta; Leticia Reyes; Alireza R Rezaie; Robert I Richards; Des R Richardson; Clémence Richetta; Michael A Riehle; Bertrand H Rihn; Yasuko Rikihisa; Brigit E Riley; Gerald Rimbach; Maria Rita Rippo; Konstantinos Ritis; Federica Rizzi; Elizete Rizzo; Peter J Roach; Jeffrey Robbins; Michel Roberge; Gabriela Roca; Maria Carmela Roccheri; Sonia Rocha; Cecilia Mp Rodrigues; Clara I Rodríguez; Santiago Rodriguez de Cordoba; Natalia Rodriguez-Muela; Jeroen Roelofs; Vladimir V Rogov; Troy T Rohn; Bärbel Rohrer; Davide Romanelli; Luigina Romani; Patricia Silvia Romano; M Isabel G Roncero; Jose Luis Rosa; Alicia Rosello; Kirill V Rosen; Philip Rosenstiel; Magdalena Rost-Roszkowska; Kevin A Roth; Gael Roué; Mustapha Rouis; Kasper M Rouschop; Daniel T Ruan; Diego Ruano; David C Rubinsztein; Edmund B Rucker; Assaf Rudich; Emil Rudolf; Ruediger Rudolf; Markus A Ruegg; Carmen Ruiz-Roldan; Avnika Ashok Ruparelia; Paola Rusmini; David W Russ; Gian Luigi Russo; Giuseppe Russo; Rossella Russo; Tor Erik Rusten; Victoria Ryabovol; Kevin M Ryan; Stefan W Ryter; David M Sabatini; Michael Sacher; Carsten Sachse; Michael N Sack; Junichi Sadoshima; Paul Saftig; Ronit Sagi-Eisenberg; Sumit Sahni; Pothana Saikumar; Tsunenori Saito; Tatsuya Saitoh; Koichi Sakakura; Machiko Sakoh-Nakatogawa; Yasuhito Sakuraba; María Salazar-Roa; Paolo Salomoni; Ashok K Saluja; Paul M Salvaterra; Rosa Salvioli; Afshin Samali; Anthony Mj Sanchez; José A Sánchez-Alcázar; Ricardo Sanchez-Prieto; Marco Sandri; Miguel A Sanjuan; Stefano Santaguida; Laura Santambrogio; Giorgio Santoni; Claudia Nunes Dos Santos; Shweta Saran; Marco Sardiello; Graeme Sargent; Pallabi Sarkar; Sovan Sarkar; Maria Rosa Sarrias; Minnie M Sarwal; Chihiro Sasakawa; Motoko Sasaki; Miklos Sass; Ken Sato; Miyuki Sato; Joseph Satriano; Niramol Savaraj; Svetlana Saveljeva; Liliana Schaefer; Ulrich E Schaible; Michael Scharl; Hermann M Schatzl; Randy Schekman; Wiep Scheper; Alfonso Schiavi; Hyman M Schipper; Hana Schmeisser; Jens Schmidt; Ingo Schmitz; Bianca E Schneider; E Marion Schneider; Jaime L Schneider; Eric A Schon; Miriam J Schönenberger; Axel H Schönthal; Daniel F Schorderet; Bernd Schröder; Sebastian Schuck; Ryan J Schulze; Melanie Schwarten; Thomas L Schwarz; Sebastiano Sciarretta; Kathleen Scotto; A Ivana Scovassi; Robert A Screaton; Mark Screen; Hugo Seca; Simon Sedej; Laura Segatori; Nava Segev; Per O Seglen; Jose M Seguí-Simarro; Juan Segura-Aguilar; Ekihiro Seki; Christian Sell; Iban Seiliez; Clay F Semenkovich; Gregg L Semenza; Utpal Sen; Andreas L Serra; Ana Serrano-Puebla; Hiromi Sesaki; Takao Setoguchi; Carmine Settembre; John J Shacka; Ayesha N Shajahan-Haq; Irving M Shapiro; Shweta Sharma; Hua She; C-K James Shen; Chiung-Chyi Shen; Han-Ming Shen; Sanbing Shen; Weili Shen; Rui Sheng; Xianyong Sheng; Zu-Hang Sheng; Trevor G Shepherd; Junyan Shi; Qiang Shi; Qinghua Shi; Yuguang Shi; Shusaku Shibutani; Kenichi Shibuya; Yoshihiro Shidoji; Jeng-Jer Shieh; Chwen-Ming Shih; Yohta Shimada; Shigeomi Shimizu; Dong Wook Shin; Mari L Shinohara; Michiko Shintani; Takahiro Shintani; Tetsuo Shioi; Ken Shirabe; Ronit Shiri-Sverdlov; Orian Shirihai; Gordon C Shore; Chih-Wen Shu; Deepak Shukla; Andriy A Sibirny; Valentina Sica; Christina J Sigurdson; Einar M Sigurdsson; Puran Singh Sijwali; Beata Sikorska; Wilian A Silveira; Sandrine Silvente-Poirot; Gary A Silverman; Jan Simak; Thomas Simmet; Anna Katharina Simon; Hans-Uwe Simon; Cristiano Simone; Matias Simons; Anne Simonsen; Rajat Singh; Shivendra V Singh; Shrawan K Singh; Debasish Sinha; Sangita Sinha; Frank A Sinicrope; Agnieszka Sirko; Kapil Sirohi; Balindiwe Jn Sishi; Annie Sittler; Parco M Siu; Efthimios Sivridis; Anna Skwarska; Ruth Slack; Iva Slaninová; Nikolai Slavov; Soraya S Smaili; Keiran Sm Smalley; Duncan R Smith; Stefaan J Soenen; Scott A Soleimanpour; Anita Solhaug; Kumaravel Somasundaram; Jin H Son; Avinash Sonawane; Chunjuan Song; Fuyong Song; Hyun Kyu Song; Ju-Xian Song; Wei Song; Kai Y Soo; Anil K Sood; Tuck Wah Soong; Virawudh Soontornniyomkij; Maurizio Sorice; Federica Sotgia; David R Soto-Pantoja; Areechun Sotthibundhu; Maria João Sousa; Herman P Spaink; Paul N Span; Anne Spang; Janet D Sparks; Peter G Speck; Stephen A Spector; Claudia D Spies; Wolfdieter Springer; Daret St Clair; Alessandra Stacchiotti; Bart Staels; Michael T Stang; Daniel T Starczynowski; Petro Starokadomskyy; Clemens Steegborn; John W Steele; Leonidas Stefanis; Joan Steffan; Christine M Stellrecht; Harald Stenmark; Tomasz M Stepkowski; Stęphan T Stern; Craig Stevens; Brent R Stockwell; Veronika Stoka; Zuzana Storchova; Björn Stork; Vassilis Stratoulias; Dimitrios J Stravopodis; Pavel Strnad; Anne Marie Strohecker; Anna-Lena Ström; Per Stromhaug; Jiri Stulik; Yu-Xiong Su; Zhaoliang Su; Carlos S Subauste; Srinivasa Subramaniam; Carolyn M Sue; Sang Won Suh; Xinbing Sui; Supawadee Sukseree; David Sulzer; Fang-Lin Sun; Jiaren Sun; Jun Sun; Shi-Yong Sun; Yang Sun; Yi Sun; Yingjie Sun; Vinod Sundaramoorthy; Joseph Sung; Hidekazu Suzuki; Kuninori Suzuki; Naoki Suzuki; Tadashi Suzuki; Yuichiro J Suzuki; Michele S Swanson; Charles Swanton; Karl Swärd; Ghanshyam Swarup; Sean T Sweeney; Paul W Sylvester; Zsuzsanna Szatmari; Eva Szegezdi; Peter W Szlosarek; Heinrich Taegtmeyer; Marco Tafani; Emmanuel Taillebourg; Stephen Wg Tait; Krisztina Takacs-Vellai; Yoshinori Takahashi; Szabolcs Takáts; Genzou Takemura; Nagio Takigawa; Nicholas J Talbot; Elena Tamagno; Jerome Tamburini; Cai-Ping Tan; Lan Tan; Mei Lan Tan; Ming Tan; Yee-Joo Tan; 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Kuen-Jer Tsai; Mario P Tschan; Yi-Hsin Tseng; Takayuki Tsukuba; Allan Tsung; Andrey S Tsvetkov; Shuiping Tu; Hsing-Yu Tuan; Marco Tucci; David A Tumbarello; Boris Turk; Vito Turk; Robin Fb Turner; Anders A Tveita; Suresh C Tyagi; Makoto Ubukata; Yasuo Uchiyama; Andrej Udelnow; Takashi Ueno; Midori Umekawa; Rika Umemiya-Shirafuji; Benjamin R Underwood; Christian Ungermann; Rodrigo P Ureshino; Ryo Ushioda; Vladimir N Uversky; Néstor L Uzcátegui; Thomas Vaccari; Maria I Vaccaro; Libuše Váchová; Helin Vakifahmetoglu-Norberg; Rut Valdor; Enza Maria Valente; Francois Vallette; Angela M Valverde; Greet Van den Berghe; Ludo Van Den Bosch; Gijs R van den Brink; F Gisou van der Goot; Ida J van der Klei; Luc Jw van der Laan; Wouter G van Doorn; Marjolein van Egmond; Kenneth L van Golen; Luc Van Kaer; Menno van Lookeren Campagne; Peter Vandenabeele; Wim Vandenberghe; Ilse Vanhorebeek; Isabel Varela-Nieto; M Helena Vasconcelos; Radovan Vasko; Demetrios G Vavvas; Ignacio Vega-Naredo; Guillermo Velasco; 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