Geochemical controls of high fluoride groundwater in Umarkot Sub-District, Thar Desert, Pakistan.

Groundwater samples (n=152) were collected in the Thar Desert of the Umarkot Sub-District, Pakistan to evaluate the geochemical controls on the occurrence of high fluoride (F(-)) levels within the study area. Fluoride concentrations range from 0.06 to 44.4 mg/L, with mean and median values of 5.22 and 4.09 mg/L, respectively; and roughly 84% of the samples contain fluoride concentrations that exceed the 1.5mg/L drinking water standard set by WHO. The overall groundwater quality reflects the influences of silicate mineral weathering and evaporation. Fluoride originates from the weathering of minerals derived from Type-A granite and possibly anion exchange (OH(-) for F(-)) on clays and weathered micas under high pH conditions. High fluoride levels are associated with Na-HCO3 type water produced by calcite precipitation and/or base ion exchange. Depleted calcium levels in groundwater allow higher fluoride concentrations to occur before the solubility limit for fluoride is reached.