Goal attributions and instrumental helping at 14 and 24 months of age.

Infants reason about goals and helping as early as 3 months of age, but toddlers fail to help others appropriately until well into the second year. Five experiments explored the reasons for this discrepancy. First, we verified that 14-month-old toddlers encode the goal of an actor's reaching action, in a situation in which a social agent selectively reaches for one of two objects. Then, four further experiments presented toddlers with a social agent who manifested her goal in this manner when the two objects were accessible, and then requested help in obtaining her goal object when the two objects were out of reach. In all the experiments, toddlers responded to the actor's request for help by handing her an out-of-reach object, showing that they understood that a prosocial action was called for and were motivated to perform it. When the two objects had moved out of the social agent's sight so that she could not indicate the goal object directly, 24-month-old children used her prior goal-directed action to select the appropriate goal object, but 14-month-old toddlers did not. The 14-month-olds toddlers helped appropriately only when no attribution of enduring goals was necessary, because the social agent could see the out-of-reach object and both looked at and reached toward it while making her request. These findings suggest striking limits to 14-month-old toddlers' understanding of helping.