Potential contributions of intimal and plaque hypoxia to atherosclerosis.

Injury of arterial endothelium by abnormal shear stress and other insults induces migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which in turn leads to intimal thickening, hypoxia, and vasa vasorum angiogenesis. The resultant new blood vessels extend from the tunica media into the outer intima, allowing blood-borne oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) particles to accumulate in outer intimal tissues by extravasation through local capillaries. In response to oxLDL accumulation, monocytes infiltrate into arterial wall tissues, where they differentiate into macrophages and subsequently evolve into foam cells by uptaking large quantities of oxLDL particles, the latter process being stimulated by hypoxia. Increased oxygen demand due to expanding macrophage and foam cell populations contributes to persistent hypoxia in plaque lesions, whereas hypoxia further promotes plaque growth by stimulating angiogenesis, monocyte infiltration, and oxLDL uptake into macrophages. Molecularly, the accumulation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α and the expression of its target genes mediate many of the hypoxia-induced processes during plaque initiation and growth. It is hoped that further understanding of the underlying mechanisms may lead to novel therapies for effective intervention of atherosclerosis.