Historical perspectives in kidney transplantation: an updated review.

The present state of success in kidney transplantation, including its benefits to patients with end-stage renal failure, was achieved through relentless research, both in experimental animal models and human volunteers. Kidney transplantation has evolved during the past century thanks to various milestones in surgical techniques, immunology, immunosuppressive drugs, expansion of donor sources, organ preservation, transplant against immunological barriers (ABO blood group-incompatible and positive crossmatch transplants), and research on induction of tolerance, xenotransplants, and stem cell technology. Despite significant improvements in graft and patient survival, several issues still must be addressed to reduce the growing number of patients with kidney failure waiting to receive organs. This article provides an up-to-date review of the milestones in the history of kidney transplantation and highlights strategies to resolve current problems faced by patients and the transplant community.