| Literature DB >> 25688328 |
David Miller1, Bradford Jackson2, Heidi S Riddle3, Christopher Stremme4, Dennis Schmitt5, Thaddeus Miller6.
Abstract
There is a need to identify strategic investments in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) health that will yield maximal benefits for overall elephant health and conservation. As an exploratory first step, a survey was administered to veterinarians from Asian elephant range countries at a workshop and via email to help prioritize health-related concerns that will mostly benefit elephants. Responses were received from 45 veterinarians from eight countries that had a range of experience with captive and wild elephants. The occurrence of medical conditions and responses to treatment varied among responses. However, injuries, parasitism, and gastrointestinal disease were reported as the most common syndromes responsible for elephant morbidity, whereas injury and infectious disease not due to parasitism were the most commonly reported sources of elephant mortality. Substandard nutrition, water quality and quantity deficiencies, and inadequate or absent shelter were among the factors listed as barriers to optimal elephant health. While this survey's results do not support definitive conclusions, they can be used to identify where and how subsequent investigations should be directed. Rigorous assessment of the relative costs and benefits of available options is required to ensure that investments in individual and population health yield the maximal benefits for elephants.Entities:
Year: 2015 PMID： 25688328 PMCID： PMC4320845 DOI： 10.1155/2015/614690
Source DB: PubMed Journal: Vet Med Int ISSN： 2042-0048
Study designs and topic categories that characterize elephant studies conducted in Asia that were identified in a PubMed search.
| Number | |
|---|---|
| Study design | |
| Ecological or natural history | 21 |
| Case report or series | 18 |
| Laboratory-based investigation | 17 |
| Cross-sectional survey | 8 |
| Policy | 3 |
| Review | 3 |
| Study topic category* | |
| Common disease conditions | 31 |
| Basic veterinary concerns | 15 |
| Treatment | 2 |
| Needs assessment | 1 |
*Twenty-one studies could not be categorized by these topics.
Characteristics of elephant health survey respondents.
| Row labels | Number of respondents | Mean number of years of elephant care | Percentage of work with captive elephants (number of respondents) | Percentage of work with wild elephants (number of respondents) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0–19% | 80–100% | 0–19% | 80–100% | |||
| India | 8 | 9.9 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 |
| Indonesia | 21 | 10.0 | 1 | 9 | 9 | 1 |
| Laos | 2 | 2.8 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Malaysia | 1 | 9.0 | 1 | |||
| Myanmar | 1 | 10.0 | ||||
| Nepal | 2 | 13.0 | 1 | 1 | ||
| Sri Lanka | 7 | 16.4 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
| Thailand | 3 | 8.3 | 2 | 3 | ||
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| Grand total | 45 | (10.7 ± 6.8) | 6 | 19 | 20 | 5 |
Major postmortem pathologic findings reported by survey respondents. Respondents were able to report more than one finding per necropsy.
| Reported postmortem pathologic findings | % |
|---|---|
| Human elephant conflict (electrocution, poisoning, poaching, train collision, gunshot, wells, pit traps, snares, etc.) | 10.4 |
| Hemorrhage | 10.2 |
| Endoparasites | 7.5 |
| Gastrointestinal stasis or torsion | 6.7 |
| Lung lesions | 6.5 |
| Liver lesions | 4.3 |
| Old age | 4.1 |
| Undetermined | 4.1 |
| Injuries from intraspecific aggression | 3.9 |
| Toxin | 3.5 |
| Splenic lesions | 3.5 |
| Tetanus | 3.5 |
| Cardiac lesions | 3.3 |
| Renal lesions | 3.3 |
| Enteritis | 3.1 |
| Traumatic injuries | 3.1 |
| Sepsis | 2.7 |
| Emaciation | 2.4 |
| Skin lesions | 2.2 |
| Rabies | 1.4 |
| Tuberculosis | 1.4 |
| Elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus | 1.4 |
| Autolysis | 1.2 |
| Cyanosis | 1.0 |
| Peritonitis | 1.0 |
| Lightning | 0.8 |
| Salmonellosis | 0.8 |
| Arthritis | 0.8 |
| Anemia | 0.6 |
| Nasal and oral mucosa ulceration | 0.6 |
| Abscess | 0.4 |
| Eye conditions | 0.4 |
|
| |
| Grand total | 100 |
Availability of laboratory facilities reported by survey respondents (n = 45).
| Diagnostic modality | Always available | Mostly available | Sometimes available | Never available | No response |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hematology | 7 | 17 | 17 | 3 | 1 |
| Organ indices | 8 | 15 | 16 | 6 | |
| Blood mineral | 4 | 6 | 13 | 22 | |
| Blood nutrition | 2 | 19 | 24 | ||
| Hair nutrition | 1 | 6 | 38 | ||
| Toxin detection | 6 | 17 | 22 | ||
| Hormone analysis | 3 | 1 | 17 | 22 | 2 |
| Fecal parasite microscopy | 22 | 13 | 9 | 1 | |
| Blood parasite microscopy | 12 | 8 | 21 | 4 | |
| Microbiology culture and antibiotic sensitivity | 4 | 8 | 26 | 7 | |
| Methods for identifying viral pathogens | 1 | 14 | 30 | ||
| Histopathology | 4 | 6 | 26 | 8 | 1 |
| Ultrasound | 2 | 4 | 11 | 28 | |
| Radiology | 1 | 1 | 11 | 32 |
Survey respondents' (n = 45) perceptions of needed improvements in the diagnosis, treatment, and preventive medicine for elephants in Asian range countries.
| Category of concerns | Specific concerns for each category | Number of respondents indicating a need (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Obstacles that prevent obtaining needed medications | Financial constraints | 15 (33.3) |
| Limited drug availability | 29 (64.4) | |
| Import restrictions for drugs | 18 (40) | |
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| Obstacles that prevent conducting needed treatments | Limited access to elephants (roads, etc.) | 11 (24.4) |
| Treatment not permitted by owner | 4 (8.89) | |
| Absence of mahout cooperation | 2 (4.44) | |
| Untrained/uncooperative elephants | 16 (35.6) | |
| Limited diagnostics that could serve to direct appropriate treatments | 30 (66.7) | |
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| Obstacles to performing diagnostic procedures | Financial constraints | 15 (33.3) |
| Limited diagnostic test availability | 29 (64.4) | |
| Import restrictions for diagnostic tests | 11 (24.4) | |
| Broken equipment | 6 (13.3) | |
| Lack of personnel training | 19 (42.2) | |
| Shortage of trained personnel | 23 (51.1) | |
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| Preventive medicine needs: food | Vitamin supplements | 33 (73.3) |
| Mineral supplements | 34 (75.6) | |
| High nutrient supplements | 31 (68.9) | |
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| Preventive medicine needs: shelter | Clinic for conducting treatments | 25 (55.6) |
| Nursery and/or sick elephant facilities | 21 (46.7) | |
| Isolation facility | 18 (40) | |
| Facility for musth bulls | 23 (51.1) | |
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| Preventive medicine needs: water | Control of H2O quality | 13 (28.9) |
| Control of H2O quantity | 13 (28.9) | |
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| Preventive medicine needs: mahout training topics | Daily routine health | 36 (80) |
| Elephant restraint and handling tools | 28 (62.2) | |
| Elephant biology and behavior | 29 (64.4) | |
| Drug use and administration | 27 (60) | |
Major syndromes reported for morbidity and mortality in Asian elephants in range countries, listed in order of most common to least common. Items in ( ) are subcategories of the immediately preceding topic.
| Syndromes: morbidity | Syndromes: mortality |
|---|---|
| Injury | Injury |
| (Gunshot wounds) | (Gunshot) |
| Parasitism | Infectious disease not due to parasitism |
| Gastrointestinal disease | Gastrointestinal disease |
| (Diarrhea) | (Diarrhea) |
| Ocular disease | Poisoning |
| Foot pathology | Old-age related |
| Malnutrition | Nonspecific |
| Abscess | Parasitism |
| Infectious disease not due to parasitism | Malnutrition |
| Lameness | Renal disease |
| Skin disease | Cardiac disease |
| Stereotypical behavior | Hemorrhagic disease |
| Overwork | Lack of veterinary care |
| Poisoning | Lameness |
| Renal disease | Musth |
| Cancer | Respiratory disease |
| Ventral edema | Dehydration |
| Drug reaction | Prolonged recumbency |
| Reproductive problem | Seizure |
| Tusk pathology | Congenital disease |
| Neurologic disease | |
| Reproductive problem | |
| Chemical immobilization |
Syndromes and treatments that are available or are needed and currently unavailable, as well as outcomes with and without treatment.
| Injury | Gastrointestinal disease | Malnutrition | Lameness | Foot diseases | Infectious disease | Parasitic disease | Ocular disease | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Standard treatment | Abscesses and myiasis, general and wounds: flush with saline, H2O2, iodine, chlorhexidine; surgical drainage; topical and systemic antibiotics 7–15 d (oxytetracycline and penicillin); local betamethasone and unspecified anti-inflammatories; conservative compress; vitamins; analgesics; tetanus toxoid; fly repellants; fluid therapy; rest. | General: antibiotics; fluids; oral electrolytes; antibiotics (ampicillin, gentamycin); ranitidine; tolterodine; budesonide; metaclopromide; nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories; antispasmotics; vitamins; minerals | Improved food quality; vitamins, minerals, and other food supplements; antiparasitic agents; regular monitoring of serum levels | Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories; steroids; herbal drugs; hot massage; cool compresses; antibiotics; supportive treatment; rest | Routine foot care; dry location tethering; isolation. | General: antibiotics | General: topical and systemic antiparasitic agents (fenbendazol, albendazol, mebendazol, ivermectin, oxyclozanide); supportive therapy; routine fecal examination | Ophthalmic topicals: gentamycin, chloramphenicol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, doxycycline, and tetracycline |
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| Percentage resolved without treatment (range/number of respondents)† | General: 0–80% | General: 1–60% | 0–20% | General: 0–20% (70% for arthritis) | 0–70% | Tuberculosis: 0–30% | General: 0–30% | Conjunctivitis/keratitis: 0–50% |
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| Percentage that die without treatment† | General: 0–70% | General: 0–70% | 0–20% | General: 0–5% (40% degenerative joint disease) | 0–50% | Tuberculosis: 0–60% | General: 0–50% | Conjunctivitis/keratitis: |
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| Percentage cured with standard treatment† | General: 25–100% | General: 90–100% | 100% | General: 70–80% (40% degenerative joint disease) | 30–90% | Tuberculosis: 20–80% | General: 80–100% | Conjunctivitis/keratitis: 50–100% |
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| Percentage mortality with standard treatment† | General: 0–10% | General: 0–5% | 0% | General: 0% (50% degenerative joint disease) | 0–40% | Tuberculosis: 0–20% | General: 0–10% | Conjunctivitis/keratitis: 0–10% |
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| Treatments that are wished for | General: Suture; minor surgical instruments; antibiotics; drugs that enhance granulation or destroy pyogenic membranes; hoisting facility; topical cream; radiology access | General: routine anthelmintics; probiotics | Improved food and supplement resources; reduced corruption of government funds; standardized nutritional guidelines | Improved drugs; improved diagnostic tools; acupuncture; hoisting facility | Elephant training for routine, hygienic foot care and foot care tools; improved staff training; increased enclosure size; cryosurgery; radiology capacity; shoes to prevent wound contamination | General: emphasis on prevention; medications specific for organism |
General: preventive therapy; improved diagnostics and drug efficacy; therapeutic baths | Increased variety of drugs available (concerns for antibiotic resistance and efficacy); improved housing (preventive); clinic for morbid animals; ophthalmoscopes and improved diagnostics; improved drug application methods; improved surgical options |
Miscellaneous conditions included urinary tract infections, heat stroke, snake bite, photosensitivity, poisoning, ventral edema, septicemia, and pneumonia.
†Inconsistencies in numbers (percentages that exceed or are less than 100%) are due to subjectivity and recall bias or language barriers.
| Date: ————————————— | |||||
| (1) Which Asian range country do you work in? ———————————————————— | |||||
| (a) What region within that country? ——————————————————————————— | |||||
| (2a) Do you work for a government agency? | |||||
| □ No □ Yes If yes, what type? | |||||
| □ Forestry | |||||
| □ Wildlife | |||||
| □ Livestock | |||||
| □ Other —————— | |||||
| (2b) Do you work for a nongovernment agency (NGO)? | |||||
| □ No □ Yes If yes, what type? ————————————————————————— | |||||
| (2c) If you responded “no” to both (2a) and (2b) please indicate your employment type ————————— | |||||
| (3) How often do you work with elephant health care? | □ Full time | □ Part time | □ Occasionally | ||
| (4) Approximately how many years have you worked with elephant health care? ———————years | |||||
| (5) How many elephants do you check and/or treat on average | |||||
| (6) In the area where you are working, how many individual elephants do you see for treatment and/or health check on |
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| (7) In the area where you are working, how many of the captive elephants (males and females) have successfully reproduced? | □ All | □ Some | □ None | ||
|
| 0–19% | 20–39% | 40–59% | 60–79% | 80–100% |
| (8a) With captive elephants? | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| (8b) With wild elephants? | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
|
| 0–19% | 20–39% | 40–59% | 60–79% | 80–100% |
| (9a) By the government? | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| (9b) By private owners/institutions? | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
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| (10) | All of them | Most of them | Some of them | A few of them | None of |
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| Zoo exhibition | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Tourism | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Logging | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Forest and habitat patrols | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Human elephant conflict management | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Education awareness programs | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Not utilized | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Date: ————————————————— | |||||
| (11) | 0–19% | 20–39% | 40–59% | 60–79% | 80–100% |
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| No visible signs of diseases or disorders | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Systemic illness | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Upper respiratory disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Lower respiratory disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Weight loss | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Diarrhea | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Other intestinal problems such as colic or constipation | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Ectoparasites, such as lice, mites, and ticks | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Skin disease caused by reasons other than ectoparasites | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Microscopic detection of infestation with endoparasites | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Shedding endoparasites with feces | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Eye disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Oral disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Tusk or molar problems | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Trunk disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Simple foot problems (overgrown toenails or foot pads, simple cracks or | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Complicated foot problems (pad and nail infections, serious injuries, | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Non-foot lameness | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Wounds other than skin lesions | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Infant mortality | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Reproductive problems | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Reduced endurance for work | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Reduced appetite | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Stereotypical behavior | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| (11b) | |||||
| □ No □ Yes | |||||
| (11c) | |||||
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| (“undetermined” can be listed as a finding) | |||||
| (1) —————————————— | |||||
| (2) —————————————— | |||||
| (3) —————————————— | |||||
| (4) —————————————— | |||||
| (5) —————————————— | |||||
| (6) —————————————— | |||||
| Date: ————————————————— | ||||
| (12a) | Never | Sometimes | Mostly | Always |
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| Laboratory for conducting | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Laboratory for conducting | □ | □ | □ | □ |
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| (12b) | Never | Sometimes | Mostly | Always |
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| Light microscopy for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Light microscopy for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Microbiology lab for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Microbiology lab for | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Histopathology | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Ultrasonography | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Radiology (or X-rays) | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Date: ————————————————— | |||||
| (13) | □ Yes | □ No | □ Unsure | ||
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| (13a) | 0–19% | 20–39% | 40–59% | 60–79% | 80–100% |
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| Frequent sneezing | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Frequent coughing | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Sudden weight loss | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Eye disease | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Abnormal joints or limbs | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Abnormal skin conditions | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Lethargy (loss of energy) | □ | □ | □ | □ | □ |
| Date: ————————————————— | |
| (14) What are the obstacles that | |
| □ Costs for medicines/financial limitations of elephant owner | |
| □ Limited availability of medicines on the local market | |
| □ Import restriction for medicines not available on the local market | |
| □ Other If “other”, please specify———————— | |
| (15) What are the obstacles that | |
| □ Limited access to the area where the elephant is located (road conditions, no transportation, etc.) | |
| □ Treatment not permitted by elephant owner | |
| □ Mahouts that do not cooperate | |
| □ Elephants that are not trained/do not tolerate needed treatment procedures | |
| □ Limited diagnostic techniques to sufficiently diagnose diseases and identify ideal treatment schemes | |
| □ Other If “other”, please specify———————— | |
| (16) What are the obstacles that | |
| □ Costs for tests/financial limitations of elephant owner | |
| □ Limited availability of diagnostic tests | |
| □ Import restriction for diagnostic tests or supplies that limit availability | |
| □ Inability to keep equipment in working order | |
| □ Lack of training | |
| □ Insufficient availability of trained personnel to conduct tests | |
| □ Other If “other”, please specify———————— | |
| (17) What are the | |
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| □ Vitamin supplements | |
| □ Mineral supplements | |
| □ Specific food supplements with high nutrients | |
| □ Other; please specify——————— | |
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| □ Special location and facilities for the conduction of treatments (a clinic) | |
| □ Shelter for sick elephants and/or mothers with calf | |
| □ Isolation facility | |
| □ Specific facility/restraint for musth bulls | |
| □ Others; please specify—————— | |
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| □ Control of water quality | |
| If yes, please describe techniques/measurements used to control water quality | |
| ———————————————— | |
| ———————————————— | |
| □ Control of water quantity provided/made available | |
|
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| What kind of preventive medications are administered? | |
| (Please list as many as you are aware of) | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
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| What are the vaccinations administered? (Please list as many as you are aware of) | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
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| □ Training about daily routine health care procedures | |
| □ Training about different restraint and handling tools | |
| □ Training about elephant biology and behavior | |
| □ Appropriate use of basic drugs and administering basic medications | |
| □ Other (if “other,” please specify) | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
| —————————————————— | |
| (18) What kind of preventive programs would you suggest as useful to be conducted in your area, and which currently cannot be conducted? (Please provide details where possible) | |
| (A) | |
| (B) | |
| (C) | |
| (D) | |
| (E) | |
| (F) | |
| (G) | |
| (H) |
| Date: ————————————————— | |||
| (19) What are the six main medical issues you find with elephants in your care (i.e., injuries, disease, parasitism, malnutrition, etc.) ranked in order, | |||
| (1) Most common—————————————— | |||
| (2) ———————————————————— | |||
| (3) ———————————————————— | |||
| (4) ———————————————————— | |||
| (5) ———————————————————— | |||
| (6) Least common—————————————— | |||
| (20) What are the six main causes of elephant mortality that you see ranked in order, | |||
| (1) Most common cause —————————— | |||
| (2) ——————————————————— | |||
| (3) ——————————————————— | |||
| (4) ——————————————————— | |||
| (5) ——————————————————— | |||
| (6) Least common cause —————————— | |||
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| The following question requests information on the most common disease conditions that you encounter, treatment option used, the treatment results, and ideal future treatment options. Please list the diseases in order from the most common to the least common. | |||
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| (Most Common Disease) | ||
| (1)———— | (2)———— | (3)———— | |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| (Least Common Disease) | ||
| (4)———— | (5)———— | (6)———— | |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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| ————% | ————% | ————% |
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