Importance of the HIF pathway in cobalt nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity and inflammation in human macrophages.

Recent, unexpected high failure rates of metal-on-metal hip implants have reintroduced the issue of cobalt toxicity. An adverse reaction to cobalt ions and cobalt-induced lung injury occurs during environmental exposure and is now strictly controlled. Currently adverse reaction occurs to cobalt nanoparticles during wear and tear of metal-on-metal hip implants of which the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. The putative role of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway in the mechanism of cobalt nanoparticle (Co-NPs) toxicity was examined using the U937 cell line, human alveolar macrophages and monocyte-derived macrophages. Co-NPs (5-20 μg/ml)-induced cytotoxicity (viability ranged from 75% to <20% of control, respectively) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), whereas a comparable concentration of cobalt ions (Co(II); up to 350 μM) did not. Co-NPs induced HIF-1α stabilization. Addition of ascorbic acid (100 µM) and glutathione (1 mM) both prevented the increased ROS. However, only treatment with ascorbic acid reduced HIF-1α levels and prevented cell death, indicating that a ROS-independent pathway is involved in Co-NPs-induced cytotoxicity. Replenishing intracellular ascorbate, which is crucial in preventing HIF pathway activation, modified Co-induced HIF target gene expression and the inflammatory response, by decreasing interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) mRNA and protein expression. Addition of glutathione had no effect on Co-NPs-induced HIF target gene expression or inflammatory response. Thus, Co-NPs induce the HIF pathway by depleting intracellular ascorbate, leading to HIF stabilization and pathway activation. This suggests a strong, ROS-independent role for HIF activation in Co-NPs-induced cytotoxicity and a possible role for HIF in metal-on-metal hip implant pathology.