Late-onset sepsis in preterm infants: update on strategies for therapy and prevention.

Late-onset sepsis occurs in 15-25% of very low birth weight neonates. Early diagnosis and therapy optimize patient outcomes. Despite these efforts, mortality remains high (18-36%) and survivors suffer significant neurological and pulmonary morbidity. Although rapid diagnostics are improving, more are needed. Current therapy remains antibiotics and supportive care. Adjunctive therapies have either limited data (e.g., pentoxifylline) or have been found ineffective (e.g., granulocyte transfusions, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor/granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and intravenous immunoglobulin). Preventive strategies that have proven beneficial include infection control measures (e.g., hand hygiene and universal precautions), early enteral feeds with human milk, early removal of central lines, catheter infection prevention bundles, antibiotic stewardship and focused quality improvement measures. Promising strategies to prevent late-onset sepsis include oral lactoferrin, and pathogen-specific monoclonal antibodies but more evidence is required to make practice recommendations.