Treating COPD in Older and Oldest Old Patients.

The treatment of older and oldest old patients with COPD poses several problems and should be tailored to specific outcomes, such as physical functioning. Indeed, impaired homeostatic mechanisms, deteriorated physiological systems, and limited functional reserve mainly contribute to this complex scenario. Therefore, we reviewed the main difficulties in managing therapy for these patients and possible remedies. Inhaled long acting betaagonists (LABA) and anticholinergics (LAMA) are the mainstay of therapy in stable COPD, but it should be considered that pharmacological response and safety profile may vary significantly in older patients with multimorbidity. Their association with inhaled corticosteroids is recommended only for patients with severe or very severe airflow limitation or with frequent exacerbations despite bronchodilator treatment. In hypoxemic patients, long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) may improve not only general comfort and exercise tolerance, but also cognitive functions and sleep. Nonpharmacological interventions, including education, physical exercise, nutritional support, pulmonary rehabilitation and telemonitoring can importantly contribute to improve outcomes. Older patients with COPD should be systematically evaluated for the presence of risk factors for non-adherence, and the inhaler device should be chosen very carefully. Comorbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases, chronic kidney disease, osteoporosis, obesity, cognitive, visual and auditory impairment, may significantly affect treatment choices and should be scrutinized. Palliative care is of paramount importance in end-stage COPD. Finally, treatment of COPD exacerbations has been also reviewed. Therapeutic decisions should be founded on a careful assessment of cognitive and functional status, comorbidity, polypharmacy, and agerelated changes in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in order to minimize adverse drug events, drug-drug or drug-disease interactions, and non-adherence to treatment.