Sleep in adolescent depression: physiological perspectives.

Depression and disturbed sleep are intimately and bidirectionally related. During adolescence, the incidence of both insomnia and major depression increases simultaneously, in a gender-specific manner. The majority of depressed adolescents suffer from different types of subjective sleep complaints. Despite these complaints, the results from polysomnographic studies in depressed adolescents remain inconsistent. In general, similar features to those seen among adults with depressive disorder (e.g. abnormalities in rapid eye movement sleep and difficulties in sleep onset) have been reported, but expressed to a lesser degree. The inconsistency in findings may be linked with maturational factors, factors related to the stage of illness and greater heterogeneity in the clinical spectrum of depression among adolescents. The exact neurobiological mechanisms by which sleep alterations and depression are linked during adolescence are not fully understood. Aberrations in brain maturation, expressed at different levels of organization, for example gene expression, neurotransmitter and hormone metabolism, and activity of neuronal networks have been suggested. The circadian systems may change in adolescent depression beyond that observed during healthy adolescent development (i.e. beyond the typical circadian shift towards eveningness). A number of therapeutic approaches to alleviate sleep disruption associated with depression have been proposed, but research on the efficacy of these interventions in adolescents is lacking. Knowledge of the neurobiological links between sleep and depression during adolescence could lead to new insights into effective prevention and treatment of depression.