Bioimpedance and bioreactance methods for monitoring cardiac output.

Noninvasive continuous cardiac output monitoring may have wide clinical applications in anaesthesiology, emergency care and cardiology. It can improve outcomes, establish diagnosis, guide therapy and help risk stratification. The present article describes the theory behind the two noninvasive continuous monitoring methods for cardiac output assessment such as bioimpedance and bioreactance. The review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these methods and highlights the recent method comparison studies. The use of bioimpedance and bioreactance to estimate cardiac output under haemodynamic challenges is also discussed. In particular, the article focuses on performance of the two methods in the assessment of fluid responsiveness using passive leg raising test and cardiac output response to exercise stress testing.