Upconversion nanoparticles: from hydrophobic to hydrophilic surfaces.

CONSPECTUS: Photon upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) have emerged as a promising new class of nanomaterials due to their ability to convert near-IR light into visible luminescence. Unfortunately, most efficient methods for preparing UCNPs yield hydrophobic materials, but water-dispersibility is needed in the major fields of applications of UCNPs, that is, in bioimaging, labeling, and bioassays. Numerous methods therefore have been reported in the past years to convert the hydrophobic surface of UCNPs to a more hydrophilic one so to render them dispersible in aqueous systems. We present a classification respective for these strategies and assess the main methods. These include (A) chemical modification of the hydrophobic (typically oleate) ligand on the surface, (B) addition of an extra layer, (C) addition of a thin shell on top of the UCNP, and (D) complete replacement of the original ligand by another one. Chemical modification (A) involves oxidation of the oleate or oleylamine and leads to particles with terminal oxygen functions. This method is less often used because solutions of the resulting UCNPs in water have limited colloidal stability, protocols are time-consuming and often give low yields, and only a limited number of functional groups can be introduced. Methods B and C involve coating of UCNPs with amphiphiles or with shells made from silica oxide, titanium oxide, or metallic gold or silver. These methods are quite versatile in terms of further modifications, for example, by further cross-linking or by applying thiol-gold chemistry. Growing an extra shell is, however, often accompanied by a higher polydispersity. Method D can be divided into subgroups based on either (i) the direct (single-step) replacement of the native ligand by a new ligand or (ii) two-step protocols using nitrosyltetrafluoroborate (NOBF4) or strong acids as reagents to produce ligand-free UCNPs prior to the attachment of a new ligand. These methods are simple and versatile, and the distance between the new ligand and the luminescent particle can be well controlled. However, the particles often have limited stability in buffer systems. The methods described also are of wider interest because they are likely to be applicable to other kinds of nanomaterials. We additionally address the need for (a) a better control of particle size and homogeneity during synthesis, (b) more reproducible methods for surface loading and modification, (c) synthetic methods giving higher yields of UCNPs, (d) materials displaying higher quantum yields in water solution without the need for tedious surface modifications, (e) improved methods for workup (including the suppression of aggregation), (f) new methods for surface characterization, and (g) more affordable reagents for use in surface modification. It is noted that most synthetic research in the area is of the trial-and-error kind, presumably due to the lack of understanding of the mechanisms causing current limitations. Finally, all particles are discussed in terms of their biocompatibility (as far as data are available), which is quintessential in terms of imaging, the largest field of application.