Repeated patterns of trait divergence between closely related dominant and subordinate bird species.

Ecologically similar species often compete aggressively for shared resources. These interactions are frequently asymmetric, with one species behaviorally dominant to another and excluding it from preferred resources. Despite the potential importance of this type of interference competition as a source of selection, we know little about patterns of trait divergence between dominant and subordinate species. We compiled published data on phylogenetically independent, closely related species of North American birds where one species was consistently dominant in aggressive interactions with a congeneric species. We then compared the body size, breeding phenology, life history, ecological breadth, and biogeography of these species. After accounting for body size and phylogeny, we found repeated patterns of trait divergence between subordinate and dominant species within genera. Subordinate species that migrated seasonally arrived 4-7 days later than dominants on their sympatric breeding grounds, and both resident and migratory subordinates initiated breeding 7-8 days later than their dominant, sympatric congeners. Subordinate species had a 5.2% higher annual adult mortality rate and laid eggs that were 0.02 g heavier for their body mass. Dominant and subordinate species used a similar number of different foods, foraging behaviors, nest sites, and habitats, but subordinates were more specialized in their foraging behaviors compared with closely related dominant species. The breeding and wintering ranges of subordinate species were 571 km farther apart than the ranges of dominant species, suggesting that subordinate species migrate greater distances. Range sizes and latitudinal distributions did not consistently differ, although subordinate species tended to breed farther north or winter farther south. These results are consistent with dominant species directly influencing the ecological strategies of subordinate species (via plastic or genetically based changes), either by restricting their access to resources or simply through aggression. Alternatively, these ecological traits may covary with patterns of behavioral dominance, with no direct consequences of interactions. Regardless of the mechanism, recognizing that the relative position of a species within a dominance hierarchy is correlated with a suite of other ecological and fitness related traits has far-reaching implications for the mechanisms underlying species distributions and the structure of biological assemblages.