Phosphodiesterase inhibition in cognitive decline.

Understanding the cellular and molecular processes involved in learning and memory will help in the development of safe and effective cognitive enhancers. The cAMP response element-binding (CREB) may be a universal modulator of processes required for memory formation, and increasing the levels of second messengers like cAMP and cGMP could ultimately lead to CREB activation. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors regulate signaling pathways by elevating cAMP and/or cGMP levels, and they have been demonstrated to improve learning and memory in a number of rodent models of impaired cognition. The aim of this review is to summarize the outstanding progress that has been made in the application of PDE inhibitors for memory dysfunction. In addition, we have introduced some recent data we generated demonstrating that tadalafil could be considered as an optimal candidate for drug re-positioning and as a good candidate to enhance cognition.