Nitro-oxidative species in vivo biosensing: challenges and advances with focus on peroxynitrite quantification.

The importance of the so-called reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNOS) in biology and food technology has been widely recognized. However when these species are in excess, the steady-state maintained by physiological processes is disturbed. At this point, the nitro oxidative metabolic stress develops and its action in vivo over time leads to nitro-oxidative reactions in food and in living organisms, but also results in chronic degenerative diseases. Analytical methods enabling the assessment of the total antioxidant activity of a biological sample or a plant extract is therefore largely sought after. The ability of biosensors for rapid and real-time analysis that decreases the assay time and the possibility of automated and multi-analyte analysis at low cost has also allowed the quantitative and qualitative detection of RNOS. Among these RNOS, peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) is a well-known inflammatory mediator during a number of physiological and pathological processes. Consequently, many efforts are underway to detect peroxynitrite in the biomedical field. This urgent demand makes the development of ONOO(-) specific probes of great interest. Not only they can be useful for the detection of disease states, but they will also allow for a screening-type analysis of potential signal transduction pathways in the cells. This invited review will critically discuss for the first time the very latest advancements and the challenges in the field of peroxynitrite biosensors and probes for in vivo and in vitro studies. Also, the main trends will be extracted, in order to chart the future directions and hence create an instrumental outlook.