Choice of operating voltage for a transmission electron microscope.

An accelerating voltage of 100-300kV remains a good choice for the majority of TEM or STEM specimens, avoiding the expense of high-voltage microscopy but providing the possibility of atomic resolution even in the absence of lens-aberration correction. For specimens thicker than a few tens of nm, the image intensity and scattering contrast are likely to be higher than at lower voltage, as is the visibility of ionization edges below 1000eV (as required for EELS elemental analysis). In thick (>100nm) specimens, higher voltage ensures less beam broadening and better spatial resolution for STEM imaging and EDX spectroscopy. Low-voltage (e.g. 30kV) TEM or STEM is attractive for a very thin (e.g. 10nm) specimen, as it provides higher scattering contrast and fewer problems for valence-excitation EELS. Specimens that are immune to radiolysis suffer knock-on damage at high current densities, and this form of radiation damage can be reduced or avoided by choosing a low accelerating voltage. Low-voltage STEM with an aberration-corrected objective lens (together with a high-angle dark-field detector and/or EELS) offers atomic resolution and elemental identification from very thin specimens. Conventional TEM can provide atomic resolution in low-voltage phase-contrast images but requires correction of chromatic aberration and preferably an electron-beam monochromator. Many non-conducting (e.g. organic) specimens damage easily by radiolysis and radiation damage then determines the TEM image resolution. For bright-field scattering contrast, low kV can provide slightly better dose-limited resolution if the specimen is very thin (a few nm) but considerably better resolution is possible from a thicker specimen, for which higher kV is required. Use of a phase plate in a conventional TEM offers the most dose-efficient way of achieving atomic resolution from beam-sensitive specimens.