Multiple natural enemies cause distance-dependent mortality at the seed-to-seedling transition.

Specialised natural enemies maintain forest diversity by reducing tree survival in a density- or distance-dependent manner. Fungal pathogens, insects and mammals are the enemy types most commonly hypothesised to cause this phenomenon. Still, their relative importance remains largely unknown, as robust manipulative experiments have generally targeted a single enemy type and life history stage. Here, we use fungicide, insecticide and physical exclosure treatments to isolate the impacts of each enemy type on two life history stages (germination and early seedling survival) in three tropical tree species. Distance dependence was evident for five of six species-stage combinations, with each enemy type causing distance dependence for at least one species stage and their importance varying widely between species and stages. Rather than implicating one enemy type as the primary agent of this phenomenon, our field experiments suggest that multiple agents acting at different life stages collectively contribute to this diversity-promoting mechanism.