Measurement science in the circulatory system.

The dynamics of the cellular and molecular constituents of the circulatory system are regulated by the biophysical properties of the heart, vasculature and blood cells and proteins. In this review, we discuss measurement techniques that have been developed to characterize the physical and mechanical parameters of the circulatory system across length scales ranging from the tissue scale (centimeter) to the molecular scale (nanometer) and time scales of years to milliseconds. We compare the utility of measurement techniques as a function of spatial resolution and penetration depth from both a diagnostic and research perspective. Together, this review provides an overview of the utility of measurement science techniques to study the spatial systems of the circulatory system in health and disease.