Analgesia for the cirrhotic patient: a literature review and recommendations.

The choice of analgesic agent in cirrhotic patients is problematic and must be individualized taking into account several factors including severity of liver disease, history of opioid dependence, and potential drug interactions. With a cautious approach including slow dose up-titration and careful monitoring, effective analgesia can be achieved in most cirrhotic patients without significant side effects or decompensation of their liver disease. Paracetamol is safe in patients with chronic liver disease but reduced doses of 2-3 grams daily is recommended for long-term use. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are best avoided because of risk of renal impairment, hepatorenal syndrome, and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Opioids have an increased risk of toxicity particularly in patients with hypoalbuminaemia, and immediate-release as opposed to controlled-release formulations are advised. Co-prescription of laxatives is mandatory to avoid constipation and encephalopathy. Adjuvant analgesics such as tricyclic antidepressants and anti-convulsants may be used cautiously for cirrhotic patients with neuropathic pain. Gabapentin or pregabalin may be better tolerated in cirrhosis because of non-hepatic metabolism and a lack of anti-cholinergic side effects.