Volatile anesthetics and AKI: risks, mechanisms, and a potential therapeutic window.

AKI is a major clinical problem with extremely high mortality and morbidity. Kidney hypoxia or ischemia-reperfusion injury inevitably occurs during surgery involving renal or aortic vascular occlusion and is one of the leading causes of perioperative AKI. Despite the growing incidence and tremendous clinical and financial burden of AKI, there is currently no effective therapy for this condition. The pathophysiology of AKI is orchestrated by renal tubular and endothelial cell necrosis and apoptosis, leukocyte infiltration, and the production and release of proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species. Effective management strategies require multimodal inhibition of these injury processes. Despite the past theoretical concerns about the nephrotoxic effects of several clinically utilized volatile anesthetics, recent studies suggest that modern halogenated volatile anesthetics induce potent anti-inflammatory, antinecrotic, and antiapoptotic effects that protect against ischemic AKI. Therefore, the renal protective properties of volatile anesthetics may provide clinically useful therapeutic intervention to treat and/or prevent perioperative AKI. In this review, we outline the history of volatile anesthetics and their effect on kidney function, briefly review the studies on volatile anesthetic-induced renal protection, and summarize the basic cellular mechanisms of volatile anesthetic-mediated protection against ischemic AKI.