Pharmacogenetic variation and metformin response.

Diabetes is a major health problem worldwide, and metformin, a traditional oral anti-hyperglycemic drug, is now believed to be the most widely prescribed antidiabetic drug. Metformin acts primarily by inhibiting hepatic glucose production and improving insulin sensitivity. Metformin is absorbed predominately by the small intestine and excreted in an unaltered form in the urine. The pharmacokinetics of metformin is primarily determined by membrane transporters, including the plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT), the organic cation transporters (OCTs), the multidrug and toxin extrusion (MATE) transporters, and the critical protein kinase AMPactivated protein kinase (AMPK). PMAT may play a role in the uptake of metformin from the gastrointestinal tract, while OCTs mediate the intestinal absorption, hepatic uptake, and renal excretion of metformin. MATEs are believed to contribute to the hepatic and renal excretion of the drug. The pharmacologic effects of metformin are primarily exerted in the liver, at least partly via the activation of AMPK and the subsequent inhibition of gluconeogenesis. A considerable amount of pharmacogenetic research has demonstrated that genetic variation is one of the major factors affecting metformin response. Moreover, it has become increasingly clear that membrane transporters are important determinants of the pharmacokinetics of metformin. In this review, we will discuss the genetic variants of major transporters that purportedly determine the pharmacokinetics of metformin in terms of drug bioavailability, distribution, and excretion, such as PMAT, OCTs, and MATEs. Understanding how genetic variation affects metformin response will help promote more effective use of the drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D).