Tardive dyskinesia syndromes: current concepts.

Tardive syndromes (TS) encompass a broad spectrum of abnormal movements due to chronic exposure to dopamine receptor blocking agents. This review provides a compiled update on TS, including phenomenology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, genetic correlations and therapeutics, highlighting the emerging experience with atypical antipsychotics. The advent of atypical antipsychotics, which have lower affinity for dopamine receptors and act on 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C serotonin receptors, was expected to dramatically reduce the prevalence and incidence of this iatrogenic problem. Recent studies have shown that the reduction has been more modest than expected and TS remains an important challenge. Recent insights on pathophysiology, risk factors and genetic correlations have raised the hope for further individualized treatment for schizophrenic patients, and more strict use of antipsychotics. Up to now, there is no definite treatment for TS, but options range from relatively innocuous low doses of propranolol to more invasive procedures such as deep brain stimulation.