The negative reinforcing functions of nonconformity.

Employing the general approach which Neal Miller called "extension of liberalized S-R theory," two experiments (N = 108) found that Ss would learn an instrumental response, the reinforcement for which was the opportunity to escape from a situation in which they were a nonconformist. When the nonconformity situations were presented on an intermittent basis, speed of the response was found to be a function of the percentage of nonconformity trials (p <.001). When the opportunity to escape was delayed (0, 1.5, or 3 sec), response acquisition was found to be an inverse function of the length of the delay (p <.001). The results of both experiments correspond to data collected in instrumental escape conditioning experiments on delay of reinforcement and intermittent shock using similar procedures.