The ethics of neuroenhancement.

In the wake of our improving abilities to treat or modulate the impaired nervous system, we are also learning how we might improve the abilities of the healthy nervous system. We can modulate our motor, cognitive, and affective systems in ways that potentially enhance us. Pharmacologic enhancements are used widely in some circles and their use is likely to increase. Newer noninvasive stimulation techniques also have the potential to be used as enhancements. Neuroenhancements raise deep ethical concerns about safety, compromised character, distributive justice, and coercion. The ethical concerns apply to adults in general, but also in unique ways to children who are not completely autonomous and to soldiers who choose to relinquish some of their autonomy. There are no easy solutions to these ethical concerns. Prohibition of enhancements is not a viable option. Lay and professional discussions will help establish cultural norms and guide clinical practice as well as public policy.